From Little Acorns ...

A County Compass Column by Judi Heit (January~December 2012)

2012-01-20T07:38:00.000-05:00

CAREERS, JOBS OFTEN DEFINED LIVES OF OUR ANCESTORS
Week of January 12~18, 2012

What people do for half (or more) of their waking hours tells a lot about them: You can guess their interests, skills, values, educational background and, when the job is tough, their endurance!

Our ancestors’ vocations offer insight into their everyday lives, too … especially if they worked in industry. Their work tells you something about the determination that drove them into dark mineshafts, loud production lines or furnace fires each day. Their industrial labor also generated heavy-duty paperwork. You’ll find similar types of documents and historical collections across different industries. But for now, I’ll focus on railway, mining and auto workers.

LESSON 30: CLOCK IN FOR OCCUPATIONAL RECORDS

Railways: Though pre-1936 records are hard to find, various archives and historical societies have rescued and preserved some over the years. Start by determining the railroad your ancestor worked for. Local histories will tell you which railroad(s) operated in his town. Check draft registration cards for an employer and census records which often show an occupation or company name. After 1936, the Railroad Retirement Board began administering retirement benefits to workers and their families. If your ancestor’s SSN starts with a number of between 700-728, you’ll know he was eligible to receive benefits from the board. For $27 you can request records on deceased employees since 1936. Go to: www.rrb.gov/mep/genealogy.asp.

Coal Miner Tags

Mining: If you have a numbered “tag” belonging to your ancestor, he might have been a coal miner. Workers attached these tags to their belts. A corresponding tag was hung on a pegboard when they went underground. When men still hand-loaded cars and were paid by the ton (a system immortalized in Sixteen Tons), they tagged their individual loads of coal so the boys outside would know who to pay. Search for miners in state historic Coal Mining Reports. These documents offer rosters fitting particular criteria, like those injured/killed in the mines. You’ll find names of the companies they worked for and read testimony of living coal miners talking about accidents or explosions. This is a great substitute for company records, which tended to be destroyed. Disaster Source: http://www3.gendisasters.com/ (search by state and then disaster type).

Auto: Start with home sources by looking for union cards, employee badges, pictures taken at union picnics/Christmas parties and news clippings. Check local newspapers for stories, ads and photos. If your relative is still alive, have him request his own employee record from corporate headquarters or regional plants. Your relatives are the only ones who can request these. Ford is best for genealogical research, but its records are hit or miss. Request records from their archives by emailing archives@ford.com. If your ancestor attended the GM Institute (now Kettering University) you can try searching www.kettering.edu/archives for year books or school newspapers. Many auto plants also had in-house newsletters. Search: UAW, auto worker and labor in historical newspaper databases.

Perfect Practice Makes Perfect: All kinds of documents may mention employment. Don’t overlook letters, pay stubs, check registers, insurance and pension paperwork, death certificates, obituaries and city directories.

Index to County Compass Articles

2012-01-01T00:45:00.001-05:00

From Little Acorns ~ 2009

ESSENCE OF GENEALOGY TO LINK GENERATIONS Week of April 2-8, 2009
CREATION OF YOUR FAMILY TREE BEGINS WITH YOU Week of May 7-13, 2009
RECORDS VITAL TO SEARCH Week of June 4-10, 2009
CENSUS MAY UNCOVER HIDDEN ROOTS OF FAMILY TREE Week of July 2-8, 2009
GENEALOGY LINKS MIGHT COME IN ON SHIP MANIFESTS Week of July 30-August 5, 2009
KEEP FAMILY TREE CHRONOLOGICALLY Week of August 27-September 2, 2009
HANDWRITING ON WALL MAY NOT BE SO EASY TO READ Week of September 24-20, 2009
LEARNING FROM PAST NEVER GETS OLD Week of October 22-28, 2009
MILITARY RECORDS OFFER TREASURE TROVE FOR GENEALOGISTS Week of November 19-25, 2009

From Little Acorns ~ 2010

NATION’S FIRST WAR OFFERS INSIGHT INTO ANCESTRY Week of December 23, 2009-January 6, 2010
WAR PENSIONS KEY TO ANCESTRAL CLUES Week of January 14-20, 2010
CIVIL WAR RECORDS AID SEARCH FOR ANCESTORS Week of February 18-24, 2010
AFRICAN-AMERICAN EXPERIENCE AIDS GENEALOGY RESEARCH Week of March 18-24, 2010
ANCESTORS HEADED WEST TO NAB 160 ACRES FOR $18 Week of April 22-28, 2010
SMOKE SIGNALS, POWWOWS, PEACE PIPES MIGHT BE PART OF ONE’S ANCESTRY Week of May 13-19, 2010
BEFORE INTERNET DATING, ANCESTORS PERUSED MATRIMONIAL NEWS Week of June 10-16, 2010
WOMEN DIFFICULT TO FIND FOR GENEALOGY RESEARCHERS Week of July 21-28, 2010
HELMUT HIDING HEAD? NO PROBLEM, JUST FOCUS ON THE COAT OF ARMS Week of August 26-September 1, 2010
DESCENDANTS OF IMMIGRANTS FIND WEALTH OF INFORMATION IN ALIEN REGISTRATIONS Week of September 16-22, 2010
GENEALOGIST OFFERS CLUES TO TRACKING DOWN HARD-TO-FIND ANCESTORS Week of October 21-27, 2010
CLUES ON HOW TO FIND THAT LONG FORGOTTEN HOMESTEAD Week of November 18-24, 2010
PHONETIC PROCESS, PATENTED IN 1918, CAN AID TODAY'S ANCESTRAL SEARCHES Week of December 16~22, 2010

From Little Acorns ~ 2011

NEW YEAR FOR DANES WOULD TRIGGER ARRESTS FOR LITTERING ELSEWHERE IN WORLD Week of January 6~12, 2011
IMMIGRATION OF YESTERYEAR, DOCUMENTATION AT ELLIS ISLAND NO HAPHAZARD AFFAIR Week of January 20~26, 2011
PEDIGREE, OR FAMILY TREE IS FIRST STEP IN GENEALOGY 101 Week of March 10-16, 2011
SOLVING THE RIDDLE OF AN OLD PHOTOGRAPH MAKES THIS GENEALOGIST ONE HAPPY CAMPER Week of April 7~13, 2011
WOMEN IN DISGUISE SERVED AS CIVIL WAR SOLDIERS, PHYSICAL EXAMS SELDOM RIGOROUS Week of May 5~11, 2011
IF SEARCH REVEALS JUICY SECRETS OR SKELETONS, THINK TWICE BEFORE SHARING Week of June 9~15, 2011
PROJECT COULD IDENTIFY ORIGINS OF AFRICANS TRANSPORTED IN SLAVE TRACE Week of June 30~July 6, 2011
SUITABLE WIVES HARD TO FIND IN STRANGE, SETTLEMENT-POOR 'NEW WORLD' Week of August 4~10, 2011
EXPECT TO MAKE ERRORS. NOT ALL GENEALOGY RESEARCH IS TOP SHELF Week of August 25~31, 2011
HEADLINE FROM '33 RINGS TRUE TODAY ~ ANCESTORS DEALTH WITH DISASTERS TOO Week of September 29~October 5, 2011
EVERYTHING THERE IS TO KNOW ABOUT COUNTY BOUNDARIES ~ AND THEN SOME! Week of October 13~19, 2011
SECRET HANDSHAKES, INSIGNIAS OFFER INSIGHTS ABOUT OUR ANCESTORS Week of November 10~16, 2011
IF YOUR ANCESTOR IS THE ILLEGITIMATE OFFSPRING OF BRITISH ROYALTY, YOU ARE NOT ALONE! Week of December 22-28, 2011

From Little Acorns ~ 2012

CAREERS, JOBS OFTEN DEFINED LIVES OF OUR ANCESTORS Week of January 12~18, 2012

A County Compass Column by Judi Heit (January~December 2011)

2011-12-03T17:15:00.000-05:00

NEW YEAR FOR DANES WOULD TRIGGER ARRESTS FOR LITTERING ELSEWHERE IN WORLD
Week of January 6~12, 2011

January 1 became the beginning of the New Year in 46 B.C., when Julius Caesar developed a calendar that would more accurately reflect the seasons than had previous calendars. The Romans named the first month of the year after Janus, the god of beginnings and guardian of doors and entrances. He was depicted with two faces, one on the front of his head and one on the back. At midnight on December 31, Romans imagined Janus looking back at the old year and forward to the new. The tradition of New Year's resolutions goes back to 153 B.C.

LESSON 20: SOME LUCKY RITUALS

In every culture, the New Year is a time for celebration and customs to ensure good fortune and prosperity in the coming year. Here’s a look at some rituals from around the world:

AUSTRIA – “Sylvesterabend” (Eve of St. Sylvester) is celebrated with punch made of cinnamon, sugar and red wine to honor him. Evil spirits of the old year are chased away by firing mortars called “böller”. Midnight mass is attended and trumpets are blown from church towers at midnight, when people exchange kisses.
DENMARK – It’s a good sign to find your door heaped with a pile of broken dishes on New Years Eve. Old dishes are saved year round to throw at the homes of friends … many broken dishes are a symbol that you have many friends!
ENGLAND – The British place their fortunes for the coming year in the hands of their first guest. They believe the first visitor of each year should be male and bearing gifts. Traditional gifts are coal for the fire, a loaf for the table and a drink for the master. For good luck, the guest should enter through the front door and leave through the back. Guests who are empty-handed or unwanted are not allowed to enter first!
GREECE – A special New Year's bread is baked with a coin buried in the dough. The first slice is for the Christ child, the second for the father of the household and the third slice for the house. If the third slice holds the coin, spring will come early that year.
NORWAY – A rice pudding is made one whole almond within. Guaranteed wealth goes to the person whose serving holds the lucky almond.
SICILY – An old Sicilian tradition says good luck will come to those who eat lasagna on New Year's Day. But woe if you dine on macaroni, for any other noodle will bring bad luck!
SPAIN & PERU - When the clock strikes midnight, the Spanish eat 12 grapes, one with every toll, to bring good luck for the 12 months ahead. The Peruvian spin on this custom is a 13th grape that must be eaten to assure good luck.
SWITZERLAND – The Swiss celebrate St. Sylvester’s Day on January 13 by going through the streets dressed in costumes and hats representing good and evil spirits. Letting a drop of cream fall on the floor New Year’s Day is said to bring a year of overflowing abundance.
WALES – At the first toll of midnight, the back door is opened and then shut to release the old year and lock out all of its bad luck. At the twelfth stroke of the clock, the front door is opened and the New Year is welcomed with all of its luck.
USA – A kiss shared at the stroke of midnight is derived from masked balls that have been common throughout history. As tradition has it, the masks symbolize evil spirits from the old year and the kiss is the purification into the New Year.

IMMIGRATION OF YESTERYEAR, DOCUMENTATION AT ELLIS ISLAND NO HAPHAZARD AFFAIR
Week of January 20~26, 2011

I recently heard from someone who was frustrated at not being able to find an ancestor on ship manifests. As family lore had it, he arrived in America without paperwork and, since he couldn’t speak English, authorities at Ellis Island changed his name. He had only 50¢ in his pocket, yet somehow made his way to Ohio where he joined relatives who immigrated before him.

This is a common story, so let’s examine the facts … one at a time.

LESSON 21: “JUST THE FACTS MA'AM …”

“He arrived without paperwork ...” Requirements for admission to the U.S. were strict. One had to have proper ID filled out in the country of origin. Even if our ancestors couldn’t read or write, they always had paperwork, usually written in their native language, which clearly identified who they were and where they were from.

People arriving in America without proper ID were sent back to their port of embarkation at the steamship company’s expense, so steamship lines typically checked IDs before allowing anyone to board. (Note: I understand exceptions to this rule were made 1945-1946 when a flood of refugees from Europe arrived here. Many, whose passage was paid by the American Red Cross and other relief agencies, did not possess an ID.)

“… and authorities at Ellis Island changed his name.” Despite claims to the contrary, this never happened! Names were copied from documents filled out by clerks at the immigrant’s country of origin. Immigrants processed through Ellis Island used their true names, though often with spelling variations as many were illiterate and didn’t know how to spell their names in their native language.

It’s true that many immigrants couldn’t speak English, but authorities were well-prepared. During its years of operation, Ellis Island hired an army of part-time interpreters. Steerage passengers (the majority of our ancestors) were not allowed off a ship until they had spoken with an interpreter who was also able to read and write the language on an immigrant’s documentation.

“He had only 50¢ in his pocket ...” Millions of immigrants were nearly penniless upon arrival. However, would-be paupers were not allowed into the U.S. Immigrants had to either have money in their pocket or some documentation proving they had financial support.

While we could quibble that this man didn’t have 50¢ unless he arrived from a country that used dollars and cents, the FACT is that somebody paid for his ticket and trans-Atlantic passage was not cheap: It was often paid by someone who was already here, and it was common for immigrants to possess a letter from that person stating, “I will provide food and shelter ...” Many immigrants were sponsored by corporations who provided steamship tickets for the new employee and his family, along with dormitory accommodations upon arrival, if the would-be immigrant signed an employment agreement for 2-3 years or longer.

“… yet somehow made his way to Ohio.” Our ancestors carried documentation stating where they were headed and who they were going to. You’ll find this information on ship manifests along with who paid their passage and how much money they arrived with.

Perfect Practice Makes Perfect: If you’re having trouble finding an ancestor on ship manifests, try saying his/her name out loud using various spellings, pronouncing it the way you imagine your immigrant ancestor might have. If it’s a married female, search under her maiden name … particularly if she was Italian. Children will be listed using their father’s surname.

PEDIGREE CHART IS FIRST STEP IN GENEALOGY 101

Week of March 10~16, 2011

The chart most genealogists begin with is a Pedigree Chart. This chart begins with you and branches back in time, displaying the line of your direct ancestors. Most pedigree charts cover four generations, including space to record names with dates and places of birth, marriage and death for each individual.

LESSON 22: PEDIGREE CHARTS

Pedigree charts are available in several formats:

Paper Forms: At http://www.byub.org/ancestors/firstseries/teachersguide/charts-records.html, the online companion to PBS television’s program Ancestors, you’ll find PDF files of blank forms available FREE to the public. Genealogists who like to work with paper copies can print and fill them out by hand, which is often the easiest first step for beginners.

Genealogy Computer Programs: Each program can print information in pedigree chart or family group sheet form, as well as several other choices. Some have particular places to enter research log information; it may also be entered in the "notes" field for each individual or family. Blank forms can always be printed for working by hand.

Online Genealogy Websites: Ancestry.com and others like it have the capability for genealogists to enter and store their information online, keeping it private if so desired. Just like a genealogy program on a home computer, an online site will print information in various formats. Blank forms are generally available for non-members to print as well, but it may take some digging to find them.

The standard Pedigree Chart always begins with you (or the individual whose ancestry you’re tracing) at #1 on the chart. Information on your father (or #1's father) is entered at #2, mother at #3, paternal grandfather at #4, paternal grandmother at #5, maternal grandfather at #6, maternal grandmother at #7 and so on. The male line always follows the upper track, while the female line follows the bottom track.

• Record full names when known, writing the surname in caps (John William SMITH)
• Record full maiden names for married women
• Record dates as day, month and year (1 Jan 2011)
• Record places as Town, County, State, Country

After you've traced a family back more than four generations, you’re ready to add an additional chart for generations 5-7. To make it easy to follow a family from chart to chart, record the next chart number beside each individual in the 4th generation (ancestors 8-15). At the top of each new chart, you’ll reference their number and original chart so you can quickly follow the family through the generations. For example, person #1 on chart #2 will be the same person as person #8 on chart #1 (your father’s father’s father).

Perfect Practice Makes Perfect: Once you have the basics recorded, there are many creative ways you can turn your tree into a lovely heirloom. Go to Google.com and search for “family tree images”. A click on many of the images will bring you to sites where you can either download FREE templates or order custom-made trees.

SOLVING THE RIDDLE OF AN OLD PHOTOGRAPH MAKES THIS GENEALOGIST ONE HAPPY CAMPER
Week of April 7~13, 2011

We all have photos of people we can’t identify and keep them because they’re precious heirlooms. We hope that someday we’ll figure out who they are, but that usually won’t happen without some detective work. Here are five steps to help you uncover their secrets.

LESSON 23: BYGONE DETAILS

1. By understanding old processes, it’s possible to determine the period of time a photograph was taken. If you can’t identify the process yourself, a local photographer may be able to help:

Daguerreotypes (ca. 1839): Images created on a silver or silver-covered copper plate.
Ambrotypes (ca. 1854): A glass negative backed with black material which enabled it to appear as a positive image.
Ferrotypes/Tintypes (ca. 1855): Produced in various sizes and substituted an iron plate for glass. Because tintypes were placed in albums along with CDVs, they were often trimmed at the sides and corners.
Carte de Visite (ca. 1859): CDVs involved a special camera that produced 8 poses on one negative. This provided photographs the size of a then standard calling card. They arrived in the U.S. on the eve of the Civil War (1861~1865) and quickly became popular with loved ones who sought an affordable image remembrance. Special photo albums were designed to hold them.

2. Formal pictures often show the name and place of the studio where it was taken. To determine the time period a photographer was in business, check old city directories for the area or ask members of local historical and genealogical societies. Some photographers were only in business for a few years, so that information may help you narrow the time period down. www.CraigCamera.com is a great resource of American photographers and www.ClassyArts.com has a Photographer’s Database.

3. The setting or backdrop may provide clues to location or time period. Look for recognizable details from other photos of the same family: Their house, car, furniture, household items, jewelry and other background items that may have appeared in photos for which you do have names and dates.

4. Photographs taken during the 19th century were generally formal affairs where people got dressed up in their "Sunday best." Clothing fashions and hairstyle choices changed from year to year, providing another basis for determining the approximate date when a photograph was taken. Pay special attention to waist size and styles, necklines, skirt lengths and widths, dress sleeves and fabric choices. Women's clothing styles tend to change more frequently than men, but men's fashions can still be helpful. Menswear is all in the details, such as coat collars, neckties and uniforms. If you're new to identifying clothing features, hairstyles and other fashion features, begin by comparing fashions from similar photos for which you have dates. For help, go to http://www.costumes.org/.

5. Once you narrow down a location and time period, knowledge of your ancestors comes into play. Knowing which branch of the family passed down the photograph can help. If the photograph is a family portrait or group shot, try to identify other people in the photo. Talk to family members to see if they recognize any of the faces or features of the photograph.

Perfect Practice Makes Perfect: If you still aren't able to identify the subjects of your photo, create a list of the ancestors who meet all of the possible criteria, including approximate age, family line and location. Then cross off any people who you have been able to identify in other photos as different individuals. You may find you only have only one or two possibilities left!

WOMEN IN DISGUISE SERVED AS CIVIL WAR SOLDIERS, PHYSICAL EXAMS SELDOM RIGOROUS
Week of May 5~11, 2011

The Civil War began 150 years ago on April 12, 1861. Though it’s unknown how many soldiers actually served on both sides, it’s estimated that over 600 of them were women disguised as men. Flying in the face of Victorian conventions and the traditional view of females as frail, passive and subordinate, about 250 women are thought to have served in the Confederate Army, with about 400 women serving on the Union side.

Even if the estimate of 600 soldier-women is accepted as an upper limit, it’s an astonishing figure. How were so many women able to accomplish this incredible deception, when it’s inconceivable that a woman could enter the military under the same circumstances today?

A LITTLE ACORN EXTRA: SHE WENT TO THE FIELD

Franklin Edmonds ~ Sarah Emma Edmonds

Recruitment examinations were only as good as the surgeon who performed them. A recruit was unlikely to face a physical more rigorous than holding out his hands to demonstrate he had a working trigger finger or perhaps opening his mouth to show his teeth were strong enough to rip open a minie ball cartridge.

1860s Army life differed significantly from today’s military. There was no boot camp with intensive physical training and living/sleeping arrangements were close or closer than today’s standard. The fact that the majority of soldiers lived outside throughout the war, with freedom to wash and attend to sanitary matters out of sight of comrades, made it possible for females to avoid the scrutiny that would give them away. Societal standards of modesty ensured that no one would question a shy soldier’s reluctance to bathe in a river with his messmates or to relieve himself in the open company sinks.

Victorian gender identification was more closely linked to attire and superficial appearances than physical characteristics. Hoop skirts were the order of the day with long hair worn in elaborate arrangements. A woman in pants in 1861 was a sight more rare than a man wearing a dress is today. Thus, if it wore pants, most people of the period naturally assumed the person was a man. In polite society, speculating further or inquiring upon what lay beneath another person’s attire would mark the questioner as less than a gentleman or lady.

A large number of young and beardless boys whose voices had yet to change served on both sides. The presence of pre-adolescent boys in the ranks aided likewise beardless and high-voiced women to blend into the ranks with their male comrades. Many of them were not discovered until they were killed in battle, required medical attention or became pregnant. When revealed, they were most often discharged on the grounds of “sexual incompatibility”.

Ill-fitting uniforms helped to conceal feminine characteristics. A common element of soldier-women stories was their ability to recognize other women in the ranks while the men around them were oblivious to this deception. This suggests that, while women knew what to look for in order to recognize other women in male attire, the men around them were either unfamiliar with the sight of women in pants or had extreme difficulty accepting the possibility that a fellow soldier might not be male. Biases about the physical, emotional and intellectual abilities of women, as well as beliefs about appropriate and acceptable feminine roles, precluded the concept of a female soldier and rendered many men in the armies incapable of recognizing the women among them.

Now take a closer look: Discovering this fascinating aspect of Civil War history makes it impossible to view its photos without searching for the faces of these brave women who went to field and fought like the rest of ‘em! For further reading and photos of some soldier women visit http://civilwarsoldierwomen.blogspot.com/.

IF RESEARCH REVEALS JUICY SECRETS OR SKELETONS, THINK TWICE BEFORE SHARING
Week of June 9~15, 2011

Genealogists collect a lot of personal details about ancestors and living descendants. Sharing what we discover is fundamental to our research, but we don’t want to spill details others would rather we keep quiet. Relatives might fear identity theft or the revelation of what they see as shameful secrets. Others simply don’t like the idea of “strangers” knowing anything about them.

As social norms and morals change, so do our ideas about what’s embarrassing. Think about what’s “normal” for your family and, if possible, ask the person involved about h/her preference. To help you balance those concerns, here are 6 tips for sharing your research.

LESSON 24: PRIVACY MATTERS

1. Identify what should be private. Any information on living people that could be considered embarrassing should stay confidential. This might include illegitimate births, affairs, remarriages, mental illness or criminal history. Also withhold such details on a deceased person if h/her living spouse or children might be embarrassed by disclosing it.

2. Find out what’s already public. Even if the information you want to share is already public knowledge, it doesn’t mean it’s OK to republish what you’ve discovered online. Nor does it mean you should focus new attention on an incident that relatives might find embarrassing. It just means the information is already out of the barn.

3. Get permission before revealing details to “strangers”. Regardless of the content, get OKs from all living relatives before publishing information about them in a place where nonrelatives can access it. If contacting them all would be too great a job, take the safe route … when in doubt, leave it out.

4. Suppress information about living relatives in GEDCOMS you swap. All popular genealogy programs can exchange information with other programs via GEDCOM files (a trade language for genealogy programs). If you’re sending a GEDCOM file to someone else or posting it online, exclude information about living descendants. Most programs let you include either your entire family file or specific branches of your family tree … find out how to do this on the program you’re using. Most programs also let you mark as private all or part of a notes field.

5. Control what’s visible in online trees. Some online family trees automatically filter out information on living people and let you control who gets access to your submissions. Before posting, check out their privacy policy. As a researcher, you’ll want to be credited for your hard work (remaining anonymous offers no benefits to most submitters). Doing so also enables other researchers to contact you. If you’re concerned about infringements on your privacy, create a Google or Hotmail account for the specific purpose of sharing genealogical info online.

6. Avoid publicizing details about minors. Don’t post information or pictures of children in publicly accessible places (particularly sites like Facebook) unless you adjust your privacy settings to “Friends Only”. ALWAYS get parental permission and stick to password-protected sites you can “invite” people to view.

Perfect Practice Makes Perfect: In the end, you’re the only one who can decide what, if anything, your genealogy project says about you and living relatives. It doesn’t have to be all or nothing: For example, in an online tree you can include full names, initials only or simply use the word “living” as a first name.

PROJECT COULD IDENTIFY ORIGINS OF AFRICANS TRANSPORTED IN SLAVE TRADE
Week of June 30~July 6, 2011

The African Origins project arose from the work of Ugo Nwokeji and David Eltis who used audio recordings of names found in Courts of Mixed Commission (CMC) registers for Havana, Cuba and Freetown, Sierra Leone to identify likely ethno-linguistic origins. The names in these recordings were pronounced by speakers of the same language and accent that the CMC registrants would likely have had (if the name was written in a Havana register, the names were pronounced by a Spanish speaker with a Havana accent).

This helped connect the sound of the name to its spelling and enabled a more accurate opinion of its possible ethnic origin than would its written match alone. The recordings were played to informants in Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Angola and to members of the African diaspora in parts of North America, who were able to identify through these pronunciations the likely ethnic group from which the name derived.

A LITTLE ACORNS EXTRA: African Origins Project Hopes to Identify Origins of Africans Transported in the Transatlantic Slave Trade

Why the registers were created: Following anti-slave trade treaties, U.S. and British Royal Navies policed the African Atlantic coast in search of slaving vessels. They escorted captured ships to ports where CMC were established to arbitrate cases of slave trading. The registers were created to provide a record of liberated Africans in an effort to prevent their re-enslavement. Ideally, these Africans would be repatriated to their country of origin and, should they be captured again, the registers would provide legal evidence of their status and secure their freedom.

Many liberated Africans didn’t go back to their pre-enslavement existence. Instead of being returned to their place of origin, those taken back to Africa were brought to areas unfamiliar to them and some of them were re-enslaved. The less fortunate continued their ocean voyages on a repatriation vessel, sometimes taking several months to return to Africa, many dying before reaching African shores.

Other liberated Africans were taken to ports in the Americas or islands in the Caribbean where CMC were established. Almost all Africans on board vessels that were diverted to ports in the Americas, and many of those taken to Sierra Leone, eventually became part of the black population of the Americas.

How to use the database: To this writing, there are over 9,000 profiles in this database. Details include the name as it appeared in the CMC register, age, ship name and embarkation/disembarkation ports. Where known, it includes place of origin/ethnicity. In each profile, you can click to hear how the name was pronounced and can view a list of others who were on board with that individual. Because the African names were recorded by English and Spanish speakers at a time when many African languages had no written counterpart, the spelling is a phonetic representation of how the name might be spelled by an English or Spanish speaker.

To get started, type the name you are seeking in the “Name” box under Search Tools. By default, the name search locates phonetically similar names. As modern counterparts of these names are added from public contributions, this search can also be used to find likely modern spellings of these African names.

Its use in genealogical research: A challenge to tracing African ancestry is locating records that link a name in a record created on the American side of the Atlantic with the actual name of the African who made the voyage. Names of Africans transported in the transatlantic slave trade were often “Christianized” once the Africans on board were sold into slavery. For this reason, a database such as the African Origins portal naturally generates excitement, since the names of the people on board are clearly African.

However, there are limits to its usefulness in genealogical research. Because Africans on board were liberated, and never entered into the intra-national records of the slave trade, there is less likelihood they can be connected with, say, an African American’s research into enslaved ancestors. That said the database still enables the discovery of information that will help to shed light on the ancestry of individuals descended from Africans transported in the trade or members of the African Diaspora.

Contribute to this project: If you are familiar with any African names or naming practices, you can contribute to this project. By suggesting a modern counterpart for an African name recorded in the historical registers, as well as ethno-linguistic groups that use that name, you’ll help to identify the likely linguistic, cultural and geographic origins of that African. Learn more about this at http://www.african-origins.org/.

SUITABLE WIVES HARD TO FIND IN STRANGE, SETTLEMENT-POOR ‘NEW WORLD’

Week of August 4~10, 2011

Finding a suitable wife hasn’t always been a straightforward proposition … especially when it came to establishing settlements in a savage New World.

LESSON 13-1: HERE COME THE BRIDES, PART 2

Jamestown Women

Jamestown Women – After Jamestown’s establishment in 1607, there was concern as to whether white women had a place in the savage New World. By 1619, the Virginia Company of London realized the establishment of thriving communities would be impossible without the stabilizing influence of wives and arranged that “a fit hundredth might be sent of women, maids young and uncorrupt, to make wives to the inhabitants.” 57 young maids arrived in 1622, most of whom “were well married before the coming away of the ships.” Search: “The Virginia Colonial Records Project”.

Filles du Roi – Men in the French colonies were also longing for wives. Recognizing this necessity, King Louis XIV sponsored the emigration of 770 “Kings Daughters” between 1663-1779. They were generally 12-25 years old and had to supply a letter of reference from their parish priest before being chosen for passage to New France.

Filles Du Roi

Most of the women were commoners of humble birth who received a King’s dowry of 50 livres (more if they married an army officer) and free passage. Some were considered orphans by virtue of having lost at least one parent. Others had both parents but needed to go out on their own. If you have French Canadian ancestors, you more than likely have one or more “Daughters” in your tree. Go to: www.fillesduroi.org/src/Filles_list.htm.

Casket Girls

Casket Girls – In 1718 there were no white women in and around the swampy settlement of New Orleans when the French Canadian, Jean Baptiste LeMoyne brought approximately 300 men to build the city of Nouvelle Orleans. Among those men, only 28 were married, leaving poor prospects for the remaining 272. LeMoyne’s need to keep his men happy led to a plea in his earliest message to the King for a shipment of marriageable women. But what parents of a virtuous daughter would send her into the wilderness?

Less virtuous women were available … French women who had fallen into disfavor with their families, orphans living on the streets of Paris and many who were imprisoned in dungeons and asylums. Thus, 80 “Correction Girls” were sent to Louisana with a casket-like box containing some articles of dress. Those who survived the months-long trip were snatched up on arrival by men who were fortunate enough to have their pick.

Some women didn’t wed or were widowed after brief marriages, a condition that prompted the governor to send the following message to Paris in 1722: “There are here, Gentlemen, a number of women to whom rations are given … who are useless and who do nothing but cause disorder. The majority of these women are ruined with pox and ruin the sailors. It is necessary that you be so good as to order the Council to have them go into the interior among the Indians.” Subsequently, it became a matter of pride in the colony to derive one’s origin from “filles a la cassette” or “casket girls” vs. “Correction Girls”. Search: “filles a la cassette”.

EXPECT TO MAKE ERRORS. NOT ALL GENEALOGY RESEARCH IS TOP SHELF
Week of August 25~31, 2011

The following article is from Eastman's Online Genealogy Newsletter, available at http://www.eogn.com. It’s copyrighted by Richard W. Eastman and re-published here with the permission of the author.

In the course of writing this newsletter, I get to see a lot of genealogy information. Most of what I see is on the Web, although some information is in books or e-mail. Some of what I see is high-quality research. However, much of it is much less than that. Even the shoddiest genealogy work could be so much more if the compiler had simply spent a bit of time thinking about what he/she was doing.

Creating first-class genealogy work isn’t difficult. In fact, it’s expected. It should be the norm. Please consider the following "rules." If you follow these guidelines, you, too, can produce high-quality genealogy reports that will be useful to others.

LESSON 25: 10 COMMANDMENTS OF GENEALOGY

1. Never accept someone else's opinion as "fact." Be suspicious. Always check for yourself!
2. Verify primary sources (see Footnote #1). Never accept secondary sources (see Footnote #2) as factual until you’ve personally verified the information.
3. Cite your sources! Every time you refer to a person's name, date and/or place of an event, always tell where you found the information. If you’re not certain how to do this, get a copy of "Evidence Explained" by Elizabeth Shown Mills. It shows both the correct form of source citation and the sound analysis of evidence.
4. If you use the work of others, always give credit. Never claim someone else's research as your own.
5. Assumptions and "educated guesses" are acceptable in genealogy as long as they’re clearly labeled as such. Never offer your theories as facts.
6. Be open to corrections. The greatest genealogy experts make occasional errors. So will you. Accept this as fact. When someone points out a possible error in your work, thank that person for his/her assistance and then seek to re-verify your original statement(s). Again, check primary sources.
7. Respect the privacy of living individuals. Never reveal personal details about living individuals without their permission. Do not reveal their names, dates or locations.
8. Keep "family secrets." Not everyone wants information about a court record or illegitimate birth posted on the Internet or written in books. The family historian “records” family secrets as facts but does not “publish” them.
9. Protect original documents. Handle documents with care and return them to their rightful storage locations.
10. Be prepared to reimburse others for reasonable expenses incurred on your behalf. If someone travels to a records repository and makes photocopies for you, offer to reimburse the expenses.

The above "commandments" apply to online data as well as to printed information. Following them will increase the value of your work and make it valuable to others.

Footnote #1: A primary record is one created at or immediately after the occurrence of the event cited. The record was created by someone who had person knowledge of the event. Examples include marriage records created by the minister, census records, death certificates created within days after the death, etc. 19th Century and earlier source records will be in the handwriting of the person who recorded the event, such as the minister, town clerk or census taker.
Footnote #2: A secondary record is one made years after the original event, usually by someone who was not at the original event and did not have personal knowledge of the participants. Most published genealogy books are secondary sources; the author is writing about events that occurred many years before he/she wrote the book. Transcribed records are always secondary sources. They may contain errors created inadvertently by the transcriber. Most online databases are transcribed/secondary sources.

HEADLINE FROM '33 RINGS TRUE TODAY ~ ANCESTORS DEALTH WITH DISASTERS TOO!
Week of September 29~October 5, 2011

N. C. COUNTS 15 DEAD IN HURRICANE.

SUFFERING IS WIDESPREAD IN COASTAL TOWNS.
RED CROSS RUSHES AID WITH STATE AND FEDERAL FUNDS.
MANY SECTIONS STILL ISOLATED.

“…Twenty people, including several babies, were marooned in a tobacco barn near Oriental all Saturday night, MRS. O'BERRY [of Goldsboro, state director of relief] reported. Oriental is in Pamlico county. Water in the barn often reached a depth of several feet and mothers had to hold their babies over their heads to prevent them from drowning. From many sources came reports of harrowing experiences, of persons being marooned for almost 23 hours while high water almost took their homes away.” The Daily Times-News, September 18, 1933

Did grandma talk about a devastating hurricane or tornado she experienced? Was grandpa killed in a tragic accident? If so, http://www.gendisasters.com/ is a site you should visit!

While it’s hoped that your ancestors never endured hardships and suffering from fires, explosions, floods, mine accidents and other disasters, GenDisasters is there to help you find the ancestors who did. From cave-ins to hurricanes and horse/buggy accidents to train wrecks, you’ll find peculiar facts and extraordinary pictures of events that touched our ancestors’ lives.

You can browse the site by accidents and disasters, by U.S. states or Canadian territories and by year. The database is also searchable by surname.
If you’d like more information on a disaster or are looking for an individual who was injured or killed in a disaster, there is a message board where you can post inquiries.
You can tell site administers what you’d like to see on the site.
You can add your own disaster story; if you have pictures and information about a tragedy, you’ll be able to submit and share it with the rest of the world.

How can this database aid family historians? GenDisasters is compiling vital information on the historic disasters and tragic accidents our ancestors endured, as well as information about their life and death. This searchable database contains user-submitted transcriptions of newspaper articles about these historic events.

Is the site use-friendly? Yes. The site can be easily explored by using the navigation bar located on the left-hand side of the home page. It also has a sidebar containing featured articles.

How accurate is the information? As with all family history research, information should be independently verified. Though information contained on this site is sometimes difficult to read emotionally, GenDisasters is an incredible site … one of my favorite sources for historical information.

How much does it cost? This is a FREE website!

EVERYTHING THERE IS TO KNOW ABOUT COUNTY BOUNDARIES ~ AND THEN SOME
Week of October 13~19, 2011

Genealogists know the importance of county governments for maintaining various types of records that are useful for research. But how often have you tried searching for an ancestor's historical records in a given county, only to realize that you were searching in the right place but the wrong county? In fact, according to the director of the Atlas of Historical County Boundaries Project at Chicago’s Newberry Library, "the average number of boundary changes per county is 4.5”. This means there's a very good chance that you are sometimes looking in the wrong county for some of your genealogical records.

The Atlas of Historical County Boundaries[1] is a powerful historical research and reference. The Atlas presents in maps and text, complete data about the creation and all subsequent changes (dated to the day) in the size, shape and location of every county in the U.S. It also includes non-county areas, unsuccessful authorizations for new counties, changes in county names and organization and the temporary attachments of non-county areas and unorganized counties to fully functioning counties. The principal sources for this data are the most authoritative available: the session laws of the colonies, territories and states that created and changed the counties.

Using information from the project, Randy Majors created an easy-to-use online Historical County Boundary Maps tool based on Google Maps. You can type in any present-day place in the U.S. with any historical year to see the map of county boundaries in effect at that time, along with all of the current Google Maps places, roads, etc. to put the historical map in a familiar context. You can then click any county on the map to see the specific history of the boundary changes and type in different years to see the boundary changes over time. Here's how to do it:

1. Go to http://randymajors.com/p/maps.html and type a PRESENT-day place and a HISTORICAL year. You can also type a present day address or road name. (Depending on the date of state formation, the year can be from the mid-1600s.) This won’t account for addresses or road names that have changed. If you suspect that, start with the right present-day town or city name.

2. Click on "Go!" [2]

3. Once you see county boundaries, click inside any county to see its name and details. A pop-up window will list the county name and when its boundaries went into effect as of the date you selected. Type a year prior to that date to see the previous boundaries. Currently, county boundaries must be viewed one state at a time.

NOTES:
[1] To access interactive maps and other historical data at the Newberry Library site, go to http://publications.newberry.org/ahcbp/project.html.
[2] Occasionally, county lines may take up to 10 seconds to appear; if the county lines never appear, try refreshing the page and try your search again. As with any new and innovative technology, don't be surprised if things occasionally don't function as expected.

SECRET HANDSHAKES, INSIGNIAS OFFER INSIGHTS ABOUT OUR ANCESTORS
Week of September 10~16, 2011

Many of our ancestors joined fraternal orders or societies—associations of people bound together for common purposes. They were called friendly societies in Great Britain and, while many were based on the Freemasons, they would develop for different reasons. Broadly, there are about seven types of these organizations: Social, Benevolent & Service, Ethnic, Trade, Religious & Mystical, Political and Criminal.

The more-modern groups evolved out of ancient roman “burial clubs,” associations that offered members the equivalent of life insurance: they collected dues at regular meetings to pay for members’ funeral costs. A large number of these organizations are still in existence today.

LESSON 28: PRACTICE THE SECRET HANDSHAKE

Our ancestors took pride in belonging to fraternal societies and weren’t shy about showing off their membership. Look for the following clues: Jewelry or stationery with a group insignia, pictures taken in full fraternal regalia for cartes de visite (photographic calling cards which were given to friends and associates), funeral notices and insignias engraved on their tombstones or on flag holders placed in the ground nearby.

If you haven’t found any of those clues, you still can investigate fraternal organizations that might have appealed to your ancestors. Start by writing down everything you know about great-grandpa’s religion, occupation and ethnic heritage. Then research which organizations were active where he lived.

Finding biographical data in the records of any fraternal group requires a certain amount of tenacity and will not add generations to your family tree. Essentially, you’ll learn details that illustrate your ancestor’s personality. Keep in mind that these are private records that often aren’t accessible to genealogists. Many of these groups will respond to inquiries, but it’s usually necessary to contact them via snail mail. Some charge hefty fees for a search in their files and others don’t have staff to handle queries. If you write, remember to include a No. 10, self-addressed stamped envelope and always offer to pay for the research service.

Perfect practice makes perfect: Learn to recognize fraternal insignias and you’ll have an easier time placing your ancestor in a particular society. Excellent resources include:

Complete list of fraternal organizations ~ http://exonumia.com/art/society.htm
Guide to Fraternal Organizations & Associations ~ www.rootsweb.com/~rwguide/lesson18.htm
Cabinet Card Gallery ~ http://cabinetcardgallery.wordpress.com/category/fraternal-group-member (under Categories click on Fraternal Group Member) … wonderful images!

IF YOUR ANCESTOR IS THE ILLEGITIMATE OFFSPRING OF BRITISH ROYALTY, YOU ARE NOT ALONE!
Week of December 22-28, 2911

If you caught the genealogy bug because you thought you descended from a Revolutionary War patriot or a Mayflower passenger, you’re not alone. But if you can prove direct descent from the right ancestor, a lineage society might want you as a member. While belonging to one is an honor in itself, membership has other privileges. For example, it connects you with family historians who have similar research interests and allows you access to the organization’s library and other resources.

Just thinking you qualify for membership doesn’t count, though—to qualify for most societies, you’ll need to trace your direct line back to an ancestor who meets a specific criterion for membership. Depending on the society, it might be serving in the Revolutionary War, signing the Declaration of Independence, fighting for the Confederacy, serving with Washington at Valley Forge or running a hostelry before July 4, 1776.

LESSON 29: PROVE THE LINE

Here’s a sampling of what you can shoot for, depending on who’s in your family tree. A comprehensive list of societies and groups can be found at http://cyndislist.com/societies/lineage:

War Societies out-number all other types. To qualify for membership, you must descend from someone who served in a specific war, either as a soldier or in some other accepted capacity. Search: Hereditary Order of the Descendants of the Loyalists and Patriots of the American Revolution, General Society of the War of 1812, Daughters of Union Veterans of the Civil war 1861-1865, Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War, and, the oldest American war society, the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts.

Old World Societies require members to trace their lineage back to nobility or royalty. Search: Order of the Crown of Charlemagne in the United States of America and National Society Magna Charta Dames and Barons. (If you’re worried about descent out of wedlock, there’s even a society for the Illegitimate Sons and Daughters of the Kings of Britain!)

Colonial Societies require members to trace their lineage to someone who lived in one of the Colonies before a specified date. Search: General Society of Mayflower Descendants, Society of the Ark and the Dove Associated , National Society of the Colonial Dames of America and Daughters of Early American Witches.

Early-Settler Societies require that you have an ancestor who lived in an area before statehood. With the exception of the National Society of New England Women, most are state-specific. Search: Cyndi’s List.

Religious & Ethnic Societies require that you descend from a specific cultural group. In some, you’ll need to trace your lineage back to a set time period. Only a handful of them exist, and most are related to Huguenot ancestry. Search: National Huguenot Society.

Perfect Practice Makes Perfect: In order to join a lineage society, you’ll need to thoroughly document your lineage back to the qualifying ancestor. Acceptable proof includes: vital records, censuses, wills, probate or land records, tax lists, family bibles and letters.

A County Compass Column by Judi Heit (January~December 2010)

2011-12-02T13:13:00.000-05:00

WAR PENSIONS KEY TO ANCESTRAL CLUES
Week of January 14-20, 2010

The WAR OF 1812 was fought between the U.S. and Great Britain from June 1812 to spring 1815. This conflict involved about 60,000 U.S. Army forces and 470,000 militia and volunteer troops. Amazingly, only 2,000 of them were killed. “War Hawks” came mostly from the Western and Southern states, while New England generally opposed going to war.

If your ancestor was born between 1762-1799, search indexed and microfilmed military service files at the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) site (http://www.archives.gov/). FamilySearch.org has a microfilmed index plus records for Mississippi. Ancestry.com offers a service records database that’s essentially an index listing just the soldier’s name, company and rank. Pension applications are available only from NARA. If your ancestor served in the multiple Indian wars from 1815-1858, check the microfilmed indexes to these records at NARA where actual records are on microfilm. Other resources:

The MEXICAN WAR began on April 25, 1846 and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848. Although the war was one of the most momentous conflicts of the 19th century, most Americans seem to know little about it. It’s often confused with the Texas Revolution (1835-1836), the Spanish-American War (1898) or the border skirmishes with Mexican Revolutionaries that took place between 1913-1916. This may be due in part to the overshadowing of the Mexican War by the Civil War.

If your ancestor was born between 1796-1831, search indexed and microfilmed military service files at NARA and FamilySearch.org. The actual compiled service records are microfilmed only for Arkansas, Mississippi, Pennsylvania, Tennessee and Texas, plus a special Mormon Battalion.

Congress didn’t authorize pensions for Mexican War veterans until 1887, but these application files include some genealogical treasures: Applicants had to supply wife’s maiden name, names of any former wives (with death or divorce data) and names/birth dates of living children. The applications, which were accepted until 1926, are indexed on microfilm at NARA where you’ll have to go to request actual files. Other resources:

www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar
http://www.olivetreegenealogy.com/mil/usa/mex.shtml
http://www.dmwv.org/mwvets/vgindex.htm (click “Online Rosters” for soldier lists)

LESSON 9.2: ADVANCE TO NARA

If records you need aren’t online or microfilmed, search for paper records and request copies through NARA’s Order Online System (this service is NOT free). Here’s how:

1. Go to https://eservices.archives.gov/orderonline/start.swe?SWECmd=Start&SWEHo=eservices.archives.gov. Log in or click “New User” to register. Then go back to the home page and click “Order Reproductions”.

2. Under Record Reproductions select “Military Service & Pension Records”.

3. From the list of records select the record you want.

4. Note the estimated fee and wait time. For more information or (free) sample records, click the items under “Item Details”. Then select “Add to Cart”.

5. Fill in what you know about your ancestor. (If you let the system idle too long, you’ll get kicked out. If you must pause, click “Save and Finish Later”.) Click “Continue to Pay and Ship” (at the bottom) to enter your address and credit card information.

Perfect practice makes perfect: For best results at NARA, gather as much information as you can about your soldier before going online: Full name (including middle name, alternate spellings, etc.), year of birth/death, place of birth/death, war he served in and state from which he served.

CIVIL WAR RECORDS AID SEARCH FOR ANCESTORS
Week of February 18-24, 2010

If your ancestor was born between 1811-1848, look for records from the Civil War (1861-1865). While Union soldiers left more extensive records, having fought on the winning side, what you’ll find about Confederate soldiers may surprise you. Confederate service records that were captured/surrendered ended up in Washington where the War Department eventually compiled files similar to those on Union troops.

LESSON 9.3: ARM YOURSELF AT THESE CIVIL WAR ARSENALS

Whether your ancestor served in blue or gray, use these resources to search for records:

The Civil War Soldiers & Sailors System (CWSS) should be your first stop. Click on “Soldiers” and fill in as many blanks as you can. Key data you’ll learn will include your ancestor’s unit/state, side served, initial/final rank and regiment/company. (Note: Those who served in different units are listed more than once.
Every soldier had a Compiled Military Service Record (CMSR). The CMSR, with contents compiled from original muster rolls and other records, contains cards recording whether the soldier was present during a period of time, facts of enlistment/discharge and any wounds/hospitalization. Place of birth may be noted, though only the country is listed for foreign-born men. May also include an internal jacket of “personal papers” such as enlistment documents and any POW records.
If your ancestor fought for the Union it’s likely he, his widow or minor children applied for a pension. Pension files often contain richer data than the CMSR, including a medical history if he lived for a number of years after the war. Widows had to supply evidence of marriage and applicants on behalf of minor children had to prove their birth and the soldier’s marriage. Union pension records are indexed on NARAs General Index to Pension Files (microfilm roll T288). Search the index at http://www.ancestry.com/ or use or visit your library where the Library Edition is available for free. Actual pension files can be requested from NARAs Order Online Service or by mail using NATF Form 85. Ask for copies of all documents in the file or you’ll get only selected pages. If you order online, you can choose the Pension Documents Packet or the Complete File. The former Confederate states also granted pensions for their veterans, but application records aren’t centralized. Look for online indexes at state archive web sites.
Not all Union soldiers were volunteers. In 1863 Congress enacted the nation’s first military draft. Draft records, which are not microfilmed, are in NARA Record Group 110. Consolidated lists show each man’s name, residence, age, occupation, marital status, place of birth and any previous military service.
Part of the 1890 Census of Union Veterans and Widows survived the fire that destroyed the rest of the 1890 enumeration. If your ancestor lived in DC or one of the states alphabetically from Kentucky-Wyoming, you’re in luck. The 1910 Census also asked whether a person was a survivor of the Union Army (UA)/Navy (UN) or Confederate Army (CA)/Navy (CN).
After the war, many Union veterans joined organizations such as the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR). Union officers formed the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. Union hereditary groups include the Daughters of Union Veterans of the Civil War and Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War. Confederate veterans established the United Confederate Veterans. Confederate hereditary groups include Sons of Confederate Veterans and United Daughters of the Confederacy.
If you think your Civil War ancestor is buried in a government cemetery, search at the Department of Veterans Affairs’ National Gravesite Locator. This site indexes burial locations of veterans and their families in VA national cemeteries, state veterans cemeteries and other military Department of Interior cemeteries.

AFRICAN-AMERICAN EXPERIENCE AIDS GENEALOGY RESEARCH
Week of March 18-24, 2010

The enslavement of Africans in the Americas grew from a demand for labor, driven by consumers of plantation produce and precious metals. Because Amerindians died in large numbers, and insufficient numbers of Europeans were prepared to cross the Atlantic, the form this demand took was shaped by conceptions of social identity on four continents, which ensured the labor would comprise mainly slaves from Africa.

The central question of which peoples from Africa went to a given region of the Americas cannot be answered without an understanding of the wind and ocean currents of the Atlantic Ocean. This topic, and others related to the trans-Atlantic slave trade between the 16th and 17th centuries, can be researched at http://www.slavevoyages.org/, where you’ll also find a database identifying over 67,000 Africans aboard slave ships.

LESSON 10: START YOUR RESEARCH WHEN SLAVERY ENDED

You will follow the same steps as any research project with this difference: you’ll need to study both the slave and owner families because they were bound together as a community and family unit: their children played together, black women cared for white children and the owners and slaves sometimes worked side by side.

More importantly, as a valued asset, slaves could be bequeathed to a family member, loaned out, given away as gifts to children or sold to liquidate an estate. Hence, it may be possible to trace a particular slave through wills, probate files, inventories, account books, deeds, tax records and manumission papers which documented a slave’s freedom when it was granted or bought. Most property-related records are in county courthouses, local libraries, historical societies and state archives.

Start your research by tracing your ancestor back to 1865 when slavery ended. Try to learn his name and where he settled at that time. You may already know slaves didn’t have last names: While taking the master’s surname was common, and is a good place to start (especially if it was unusual), don’t assume this was true in all cases.

Examine white families living in the same enumeration district as your ancestor. Ask yourself these questions:

Did they live near your ancestor?
Can you find them in the 1860 census? 1850?
Are they listed as slave owners on the 1850 or 1860 Supplemental Slave Schedules?

Last, but not least, records left by the Freedmen's Bureau through its work between 1865 and 1872 comprise the richest and most extensive documentary source available for studying the African-American experience in the post-Civil War and Reconstruction eras. Researchers have used these materials to explore government and military policies, local conditions and interactions between freedmen, local white population and Bureau officials. These records present the genealogist with a wealth of information that extends the reach of slave ancestor studies. Documents such as local censuses, marriage records and medical records provide the full names and former masters of freedmen. Federal censuses through 1860 listed slaves only statistically under the master's household and no name indexes are available at this time. But the documents can be rewarding, particularly since they provide full names, residences and often the names of former masters and plantations. For more information, go to www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/freedmens-bureau.

Perfect practice makes perfect: Researching slave ancestors presents special challenges because their names are not recorded in prominent places. You will often need to make “educated” guesses that lead to dead ends, so it’s important to keep track of your sources for times when you must retrace your steps.

ANCESTORS HEADED WEST TO NAB 160 ACRES FOR $18
Week of April 22-28, 2010

Signed into law by President Lincoln in May 1862, the Homestead Act has been called the most important act for the welfare of the people ever passed in the U.S. It encouraged western migration by providing that any citizen or intended citizen, 21 years of age, could have 160 acres of surveyed government land by paying $18.00 in fees and living on the land for 5 years.

Settlers from all walks of life came to meet the requirements. Anyone who had never taken up arms against the U.S. government ... including single women, freed slaves and immigrants … could file an application.

People interested in homesteading filed their intentions at the nearest Land Office and, after a check for any ownership claims, paid a filing fee of $10.00 to claim the land temporarily plus a $2.00 commission to the land agent. They were also required to live on the land, build a home, make improvements and farm the land for 5 years before they could own it outright. Alternatively, an impatient homesteader could purchase the land for $1.25/acre after having lived on the land for six months.

When all requirements were completed, and the homesteader was ready the take legal possession, he found two people willing to vouch for the truthfulness of his statements regarding land improvements and signed the "proof" document. After completing this form and paying $6.00, the homesteader received the patent for the land, signed by the current President. This paper was often proudly displayed on a wall and represented the culmination of hard work and determination!

LESSON 11: WESTWARD HO!

An estimated 2 million homestead case files are located in the National Archives & Records Administration (NARA) in Washington. This amounts to about 30 million pieces of paper ranging from the original claim, to various documents that demonstrated the improvements, to the final decree. The files are rich in historical, social, demographic, agricultural and genealogical information … a gold mine for genealogists.
In an effort to preserve and provide wider access to the information in the records, Homestead National Monument of America (in Beatrice, NB) and University of Nebraska–Lincoln, contracted with NARA to microfilm the Broken Bow Land Office records (1890-1908) and created an online index to their records. Search the index at http://cdrh.unl.edu/homestead/.
Record indexes for most of public land states east of the Mississippi are available on CD. In addition to the particulars of each claim, the CDs contain the necessary reference numbers you can use to get copies of the actual records. For further information, contact: Bureau of Land Management, Eastern States, Attn: Public Services Section, 7450 Boston Blvd., Springfield VA 22153.
An excellent list of resource sites for Land Records, Homesteads, Deeds, etc. can be found at www.cyndislist.com/land.
The Homestead Act shouldn’t be confused with “land rushes”, where previously-restricted land was opened for homesteading on a first-arrival basis. There were 7 land rushes in Oklahoma between 1889-1895 … the most well-known being the Oklahoma Land Run of 1889 (depicted in the movie “Far and Away”).

Perfect practice makes perfect: Develop a pioneer spirit and imagine yourself in a wagon train headed westward to a wilderness where you’ll face many unknowns. Look at the landscape through old eyes and learn about the world your homesteader ancestor lived in!

SMOKE SIGNALS, POWWOWS, PEACE PIPES MIGHT BE PART OF ONE’S ANCESTRY
Week of May 13-19, 2010

More than 4 million people claimed Native American ancestry in the 2000 census. However, not everyone with Indian heritage has enough “Indian blood” for tribal membership and not all tribal members live on reservations. This makes for a challenging search.

Fortunately, there are many resources at your disposal. But unless you have a large collection of facts on your Indian ancestor, including names, dates and tribe, it is usually not helpful to begin your search in Indian records. First learn everything you can about your parents, grandparents and more distant ancestors including ancestral names, dates of birth/marriages/death and the places where your ancestors were born/married/died.

Your next goal is to establish and document the relationships of Indian ancestors and to identify the tribe with which they may have been affiliated. If you're having trouble finding your ancestor's tribal affiliation, study the localities where they were born and lived. Comparing this with tribes that historically resided in those areas may help you narrow down the possibilities. Federally-recognized Indian tribes are listed at www.indians.org/Resource/FedTribes99/fedtribes99.html.

LESSON 12: SEARCHING TRIBAL RECORDS

1818 Chickasaw Census – The first known attempt at a complete census of the Chickasaw Nation.
1830 Armstrong Rolls – The location of Reservations under The Choctaw Treaty of the 27th of September, 1830.
1832 Creek Indian Census
1851 Old Settlers Roll – Lists Cherokees who moved to Indian Territory in Oklahoma prior to December 1835. Covers about 1/3 of the Cherokee present in the area in 1851.
1860 Census of Indian Lands West of Arkansas – Index to the 1860 census covering the Indian Lands west of Arkansas (now in Oklahoma).
1860-1890 Censuses – Identified Indians who didn’t live in reservations with an “I” or “IN” in the color column. Read more at www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/summer/indian-census.html.
1867 Kern-Clifton Roll of Cherokee Freedman
1880 Cherokee Census
1890 Wallace Roll of Cherokee Freedmen in Indian Territory
1896 Citizenship Applications – People who applied for enrollment in the Five Civilized Tribes under the Act of 1896.
1898-1914 Dawes Commission Rolls – Listed over 101,000 members of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek and Seminole).
1900 & 1910 Censuses – Included special schedules of Indians on reservations, called “Inquiries Relating to Indians”, with spaces for recording tribal affiliation, degree of Indian blood and more.
1906 Guion Miller Roll Index – Included persons applying for compensation arising from the judgment of the U.S. Court of Claims for the Eastern Cherokee tribe.
1908 Durant Roll – Counted the Chippewa and Ottawa tribes of Michigan
1910-1939 Indian School Censuses – Included names of children aged 6-18, sex, tribe, degree of Indian blood and parent/guardian (often including mother’s maiden name).
1924 Baker Roll – Final roll of the Eastern Cherokee, prepared pursuant to an act of the 68th Congress on June 4, 1924.
1954 Proposed Ute Rolls – Full and mixed blood rolls of the Ute Tribe of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation in Utah.

Perfect practice makes perfect: Missionaries worked to “save” Indians through conversion and kept records on christenings, deaths and marriages. Read tribal histories to find out what missionaries were active in your ancestors area and time and find out where they kept their record books. Don’t forget to check indexes for military service records and pension files … Native Americans served in the military as far back as the 1700s.

BEFORE INTERNET DATING, ANCESTORS PERUSED MATRIMONIAL NEWS
Week of June 10-16, 2010

The concept of mail-order brides was first seen on the American frontier during the mid-1800s. The huge emigration of men to the Western U.S. resulted in a disproportionate ratio of men to women in such places as Washington, Arizona and especially California during the Gold Rush. While most men found financial success out west, they missed the company of a wife.

Back east, for women who were not of the privileged classes, finding a husband could be difficult particularly after the Civil War when thousands of young men died in battle and thousands more moved west. To make ends meet, many went into domestic service or nursing at an early age and were unable to take part in the courtship rituals allowed middle and upper class. Ingenuity and perseverance were needed to find a worthy mate if the most desirable qualifications – money and social standing – were not in abundance.

LESSON 13: HERE COME THE BRIDES

It was unusual for women to travel alone, so if you find records of a female ancestor traveling east to west without a male companion around the Civil War period it could have been to meet a prospective spouse. But how did they find each other?

Matrimonial News – Men wrote letters to churches and advertised in publications such as “San Francisco-based Matrimonial News”, a newspaper that promoted honorable matrimonial engagements and true conjugal facilities for men and women. In spite of the occasional mismatch or short-lived union, historians believe that mail-order brides produced a high percentage of permanent marriages. The reason cited is that the advertisements were candid and direct in their explanations of exactly what was wanted and expected from a prospective spouse. If requested, the parties sent accurate photos of themselves along with a page of background information. Often, when the pair met, the groom-to-be signed an agreement, witnessed by three upstanding members of the territory, not to abuse or mistreat the bride-to-be. The prospective bride then signed a paper (also witnessed) not to nag or try to change the intended! Go to: www.trailend.org/wed-expectations.htm.
Mercer Girls – Toward the end of the Civil War, women from Massachusetts were encouraged to move west. About the same time, Asa Mercer of Seattle, WA began recruiting young women by advertising for schoolmarms (though everyone knew marriage was one of the draws due to a shortage of eligible men back east). The “Mercer Girls” paid their own passage of $250 which provided transportation and lodging. When they arrived in the territories, they were put up by families who were glad to have young women as teachers and citizens. Though few in number, the Mercer Girls are well-documented and were depicted in the TV series Here Come the Brides. Go to: http://www.mercergirls.com/.
Busy Bee Club – Distressed by shootouts over eligible Black females, six Tucson, AZ wives formed the “Busy Bee Club” in 1885 to arrange mail-order brides for young Black miners by contacting Black churches and newspapers in the east.
Good Reads – “Hearts West: True Stories of Mail-Order Brides on the Frontier”; “I Do! Courtship, love, and marriage on the American Frontier”; “Black Women of the Old West”.

Perfect practice makes perfect: Throughout my series you’ll see references surrounded by “quotation marks”. When you surround a string of words with these marks, you’re telling search engines to only bring back pages that include those words in exactly the order you typed them.

WOMEN DIFFICULT TO FIND FOR GENEALOGY RESEARCHERS
Week of July 21-28, 2010

Many of our female ancestors played multiple roles in their families: wife, mother, financial manager, teacher, disciplinarian, even breadwinner. They also served their communities through church groups and women’s clubs. Why, then, is it so difficult to trace women in genealogical records?

Prior to the 20th century, most historical records were created for and about men. Property was usually listed under the man’s name, and men ran businesses and government. Meanwhile, a woman typically changed her name each time she married and, of course, children carried men’s surnames to the next generation.

Since no record set focuses on women, researching them in genealogical documents is more about strategy than anything else.

LESSON 14: REMEMBER THE LADIES

Study Her Name – List the full name (maiden and married) of the woman you’re seeking, noting all nicknames and variations you can think of. Pay attention to an unusual given and middle name which could indicate she was named after a forebear. Don’t be thrown off by middle initials: After marriage, women often used the first initial of their maiden name in place of their given middle name (i.e. Mary Jane Smith to Mary S. Jones).

Naming traditions also may provide clues: Some cultures name the first daughter after her mother’s mother, the second daughter after her father’s mother, and the third daughter after her mother.

Explore Records – Begin with a chronological list of life and historical events that may have generated records:

Weddings mean license applications, marriage certificates, marriage banns and bonds in church records. Children may have birth and baptismal certificates. Death certificates and tombstones may bear maiden names. Also note social or religious groups or societies a woman might’ve belonged to.
Old newspapers may contain obituaries or wedding announcements.
Search every census during her lifetime. If you notice from censuses that most of her children were born in one county, start your marriage records search there. Look for relatives, as young couples sometimes lived with parents. In her later years, a woman may be living with one of her children.
Often a different name for a wife on census and other records will clue you in to a change in marital relations. But it also could be the same woman going by a middle name or nickname. Don’t rush to judgment!
Until 1922 wives were sometimes listed on their husband’s naturalization records. After that, you can find separate records for married women.
A woman could file for a military pension when her husband or unmarried son died of war-related injuries. Widows had to send marriage records to assure the government if wouldn’t end up paying more than one pension on the same man. NARA has pension records for soldiers from 1775-1916.

Research Those Around Her – Since women weren’t subjects of official documents, look in records for her husband, sons, father, brothers and other men she’s associated with. She may show up as a household member, godparent, heir or in-law.

Good Reads – “The Hidden Half of the Family: A Sourcebook for Women’s Genealogy” and “A genealogist’s Guide to Discovering Your Female Ancestors”.

Perfect practice makes perfect: Never underestimate a visit to a library in the area where your ancestors lived to browse their genealogical resources. If you can’t go in person, but have an idea of what you’re looking for; try a search at http://www.archive.org/ or http://books.google.com/.

HELMUT HIDING HEAD? NO PROBLEM, JUST FOCUS ON THE COAT OF ARMS
Week of August 26-September 1, 2010

The Coat of Arms originated as a need to distinguish participants in combat when their faces were hidden by iron and steel helmets. As its use in jousting became obsolete, arms remained popular for visually identifying a person in other ways and were first used as a hereditary device in England in the mid-twelfth century.

It’s the hereditary aspect of arms that makes them useful to the genealogist. Each one belongs to a particular family and no two families are allowed to bear the same arms. Many people, mostly Americans, wrongly believe that every family was once issued a coat of arms and then everyone born with that family name is automatically entitled to use it.

LESSON 15: IT'S TIME TO CORRECT THE MYTH!

Coats of arms are NEVER issued to families; they are issued to individuals. Arms are granted by the King of Arms in England and Ireland, while the court of the Lord Lyon King of Arms grants that right in Scotland. They are issued by heralds and there are different heralds in each country in the United Kingdom and Europe. Granting isn’t automatic … each person must apply.
When a man is entitled to display arms, his sons may apply for their own. Sons are usually granted arms that are very similar to their father’s but changed slightly to add some small detail showing this is the shield of their particular family branch. If a man has multiple sons, each applies for his own coat of arms with slight differences. This use of slightly modified arms is called “differenced arms”.
When the father dies, the eldest son may apply to use the exact coat of arms that his father used. Once granted, he stops using his differenced arms. His younger brothers continue to use their differenced arms. Permission to use a deceased father’s coat of arms is not automatic.
There have been instances where women have inherited a coat of arms. However, a woman cannot pass them along to her children unless she has no brothers. In that case, the woman is considered to be the “heraldic heiress” to the coat of arms and may pass it along to her children.
The U.S. has never accepted the concept of nobility and has no officially-recognized heralds. Several American organizations claim to be able to issue coats of arms, but any such arms issued by an American organization have to be considered “unofficial”. Americans who wish to obtain legitimate coats of arms apply first in the name of a foreign-born ancestor with the heralds in the country where that ancestor lived. The American descendant may then apply to use the ancestor’s coat of arms as his “inherited right to arms.”

The wearing or display of arms is restricted in most countries that recognize the ownership of coats of arms. There are no such restrictions in the U.S. Thus, the sale (or use) of fraudulent family coats of arms is rarely stopped by authorities. Learn more at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraldry.

Perfect practice makes perfect: An ad for “your family’s coat of arms” is not worth the paper it’s printed on. Regardless of your last name, you should display a particular coat of arms only if: (1) you have applied to the heralds for permission to display the particular arms and (2) if such permission has been granted. Once that happens, you are the only person in the world authorized to display that coat of arms!

DESCENDANTS OF IMMIGRANTS FIND WEALTH OF INFORMATION IN ALIEN REGISTRATIONS
Week of September 16-22, 2010

If you have immigrant ancestors who didn’t become U.S. citizens before 1940, then you may find a search for Alien Registration Records worth your time. The Alien Registration Act of 1940 required all non-citizens, 14 years or older, to register at their local Post Office or INS office … now the U.S. Citizenship & Immigration Service (USCIS).

A great deal of information of interest to genealogists was collected, including full names, date/place of birth, date/port of arrival in the U.S., whether the alien ever applied for citizenship, names of parents/spouse/children in the U.S. and much more!

Alien registration first occurred between 1917-1918, following the onset of World War I. More than 4 million alien residents were registered during the first year of the program. Unfortunately, many of these records have been destroyed over the years, but a number of scattered records are held in state archives and other repositories across the U.S.

For the WWII period 1940-1944, alien registration records were microfilmed by the USCIS for internal use. Copies can be obtained via an online request at https://genealogy.uscis.dhs.gov/. But prepared to be patient as they are currently working to fulfill requests made about four months ago.

LESSON 16: SEARCH FOR ALIENS

WWI Alien Registration files are scattered around the U.S. Existing files can often be found in state archives and similar repositories. Records for Kansas, Phoenix, Arizona and St. Paul, MN can be searched online. Other alien registration records are available in offline repositories, such as the 1918 Minnesota Alien Registration records at the Iron Range Research Center in Chisholm, MN. Between 1917-1918 the following information was generally collected:

Full name (including maiden name)
Current residence/length of residence
Place of birth
Spouse’s name/residence
Children’s names/sex/birthdates
Parents’ names (including mother’s maiden), birth date/place
Siblings birth date/place and current residence
Whether any male relatives serving in the military for/against U.S.
Whether registered for selective draft
Previous military or government service
Date of immigration, name of vessel, port of arrival
Whether naturalized in another country
Whether reported/registered with a consul since June 1, 1914
Whether applied for naturalization or took out first papers; if yes, when/where
Whether ever taken an oath of allegiance other than to U.S.
Whether ever arrested or detained on any charge
Whether held a permit to enter a forbidden area
Description of registrant/Photograph/Fingerprints/Signature

WWII Alien Registration (AR-2) files are available on microfilm from the USCIS and can be obtained by completing a Genealogy Immigration Records Request at the site indicated above. Unless you have the actual alien registration number from an alien registration card, passenger list or naturalization document, you should begin by requesting a Genealogy Index Search. Between 1940-1944 the 2-page Alien Registration Form (AR2) asked for the following information:

Name/Name at time of entry to U.S./Other names used
Date/place of birth
Gender/Race/Citizenship/Nationality
Height/Weight/Hair & Eye Color
Address
Marital status
Date/port/vessel/class of admission of last arrival in U.S.
Date of first arrival in U.S./Number of years in U.S.
Usual occupation/present occupation
Name/address/business of present employer
Membership in clubs/organizations/societies
Dates/nature of military or naval service
Whether citizenship papers were filed; if so date/place/court
Number of relatives living in U.S.
Arrest record, including date/place/disposition
Whether/not affiliated with a foreign government
Signature/Fingerprint

Perfect practice makes perfect: If your ancestor was born less than 100 years prior to your request, you may be required to provide proof of death with your request, i.e. a death certificate, printed obituary, photograph of the tombstone or other document demonstrating the subject of your request is deceased. Always submit copies of those items as they will not be returned.

GENEALOGIST OFFERS CLUES TO TRACKING DOWN HARD-TO-FIND ANCESTORS

Week of October 21-27, 2010

You probably know more about an elusive ancestor than you think. Most likely you at least know their name, and based on that, their sex. You may know to whom they’re related ... which side of your family they come from. You may also have a general idea of where they lived, based on where that side of the family originated.

Elusive ancestors tend to fall into common categories such as those listed below. When you encounter one of them, refer to this list for suggested resources.

LESSON 17: TRACING ELUSIVE KIN

Black Sheep … the relative nobody wants to talk about!

Census (Check Occupation Column)
Coroner & Funeral Home Records
Census Mortality Schedules (1850-1880)
Court Records
FBI, Prison & Institutional Records
Marriage & Divorce Records
Message Boards
Newspapers & Obituaries

Census Evaders … in one census and out the other!

City Directories
Census Mortality Schedules (1850-1880)
Soundex Indexes to 1880 & Later Censuses
State & Territorial Censuses
Tax Lists

Drifters … move around more than a band of gypsies!

Censuses (Check Birthplace Column)
City Directories
Deeds & Land Records
Migration & Boundary-Change Maps
Social Histories

Elusive Female … not where she’s supposed to be!

Court Records
Convent Records
Marriage & Divorce Records
Military Pension Files
Naturalization Papers
Newspaper Society Pages
Records of Her Husband, Children & Siblings

Mystery Immigrants … your missing links to the old country!

Alien Registrations
Censuses (Check Birthplace & Language Columns)
Church Records
Emigration Lists
Ethnic Newspapers
Naturalization Papers
Newspapers’ Ship Arrival Notices
Passenger Arrival Lists

Orphans or Adoptees … the ultimate brick wall!

Amended or Delayed Birth Certificates
Apprenticeships
Censuses
Family Interviews
Guardianships & Orphan Court Records
Message Boards & Support Groups
Newspaper Adoption Notices
Orphan Train Records
Orphanage Records

Perfect practice makes perfect: Be open-minded: Consider all possibilities for names, dates and places. Avoid assumptions based on family lore. Review your research documents for missed siblings and witnesses. And don’t give up too easily … after all, isn’t the hunt half the fun of genealogy?

CLUES ON HOW TO FIND THAT LONG FORGOTTEN HOMESTEAD

Week of November 18-24, 2010

It’s fun to imagine the settings in which our ancestors lived, but in eras where photographs are scarce it can be difficult to picture. Fortunately, the internet offers a great opportunity to tour places we might otherwise never see. Perhaps their home is long gone and a mere dot on the grid. But locating that dot will give you a sense of what their surroundings were like when they lived there.

LESSON 18: ON THE STREETS WHERE THEY LIVED

Addresses can appear in any number of genealogical sources … vital records, censuses, city directories and newspapers. If you have these documents, compile a list of addresses and the dates they lived there. Then look for these records to fill in the blanks:

Address Books – If you have family address books, scan them for your ancestors. Birthday and holiday card lists are another good source.
Photos – Until flash bulbs became common in the 1920s, low lighting prevented most amateurs from shooting indoors. Old outdoor snapshots will often an ancestors home in the background. (Perhaps there’s something written on the back to give you a clue as to its location!) Also search web sites of local libraries, historical societies and chambers of commerce for street scenes … if you know the street where your ancestor lived, you might spot their house in the background!
Vital Records – Birth, marriage and death records contain street addresses of parents, newlyweds and the deceased (ref. Lesson 3: How to Find Vital Records).
Censuses – Some U.S. censuses show the street name and numbers on the left side of the page. From 1890-1930 they also reported whether a person owned his property and if it was mortgaged (ref. Lesson 4: Making Sense of the Census).
Newspapers – Obituaries from the late 19th and 20th centuries often included the address of the deceased. In the same time frame, marriage notices reported where the newlyweds would live and where their parents resided … especially for affluent families. Newspaper real estate sections also reveal who sold what property to whom.
Directories – Similar to telephone books, city directories were more likely to exist for urban than rural areas. Libraries and historical societies often have them in print or on microfilm. Through your local library, you might be able to borrow microfilm through inter-library loan.
Atlases – The 19th and 20th century Beers Atlases, which generally covered the Eastern U.S. have dots signifying houses, with names beside them. Some are available in electronic format from publishers like http://www.piperpublishing.com/. Also check for printed atlases at local libraries and historical societies. Or search the internet on the place name and “historical atlas”.

Once you’ve located the address you’re looking for, Google’s FREE mapping tool at http://www.maps.google.com/ can show you where the house was located. If you click the “Satellite” tab, you’ll get a bird’s-eye view of what’s there now. For some urban area, you can click the “Street View” tab for a street-level shot of the address and may actually be able to navigate around the neighborhood!

Perfect practice makes perfect: If you’re having trouble locating an ancestor’s address, Paula Warren offers some solutions in her article, Why Can’t I find or Recognize My Ancestral Homes? at http://learn.ancestry.com/LearnMore/Article.aspx?id=11838. Also read Tracking Their Every Move by Laura Prescott at http://learn.ancestry.com/LearnMore/Article.aspx?id=12866. Both can be accessed for FREE.

PHONETIC PROCESS, PATENTED IN 1918, CAN AID TODAY'S ANCESTRAL SEARCHES
Week of December 16~22, 2010

If you’re fairly certain that an ancestor lived in a particular area but are having no luck finding them in records, it’s time to think out of the box. Searching for alternate spellings of surnames is always important in genealogy, but you may need to go beyond looking only for the traditional alternatives.

Our immigrant ancestors often changed the spelling of their surname in an effort to “Americanize” and fit in with their new community or as the result of dealing with a new language. Simplifying a name (rather than having to constantly explain how it's spelled) was also the reason for change.

Even if you think your ancestor’s surname was always spelled a certain way, surnames were often accidentally misspelled in records: clerks and transcribers may have copied the name incorrectly from faded original documents or from handwriting too difficult to decipher.

In 1918, Robert Russell obtained a patent on a method for indexing based on the way a name was “pronounced”, rather than how it was spelled. He did this by coding 8 phonetic sound types with a few additional rules. Together with Margaret Odell, he obtained a second patent in 1922 with some variations and sold it to various commercial and governmental organizations. In the 1930s, it was taken up in a modified form by the Social Security Administration under a work creation scheme to extract certain data from the U.S. Census and to index its records. “Soundex” has also been used for immigration records and, more recently, for indexing, search engines and spell-checkers.

LESSON 19: MAKING SENSE OF SOUNDEX

A Soundex search codes together surnames that sound similar phonetically but have different spellings. For example, searching for Johnson in a database with a Soundex option will bring results that include Johnson, Johnsson, Johnsen and more.

It's not a good idea to begin a database search with a Soundex option as you will receive many more results than from a non-Soundex search. A Soundex search is best after being unsuccessful in a first search (or if you’re unsure how to spell a name). It provides a wider reach and better chance of finding an elusive ancestor.

http://www.familysearch.org/ (the FREE Mormon database) automatically does a Soundex search unless you check the "Use Exact Spelling" box. Try searching with and without the box checked to compare results.

http://www.ancestry.com/ (a paid site) also provides a Soundex option. As with most databases, you must check the Soundex box to receive a Soundex search. Again, try searching both ways.

Be creative when identifying alternate surname spelling for your family, and don’t be afraid to try the odd or unexpected. Also try pronouncing names the way your immigrant ancestors might have. The new alternate spelling you create may be the key to finding a missing person!

Go to http://resources.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/soundexconverter to generate a Soundex code and see other surnames sharing the same code.

Perfect practice makes perfect: Keep a list of where you found alternate spellings you’ve discovered throughout your research. This will help you to easily find records if you need to revisit a source.

A County Compass Column by Judi Heit (April~December 2009)

2011-12-01T17:16:00.111-05:00

ESSENCE OF GENEALOGY TO LINK GENERATIONS
Week of April 2-8, 2009

The creation of your family tree begins with YOU ... and grows one branch at a time.

As much as we might like to, we cannot look into the future. But we do have the luxury of looking back … of gathering information about those who came before us and recording what we learn.

The essence of genealogy involves the linking of generations, one to the next, with each generation set in the context of its own period in history. To learn about these people ... not just their names and dates ... but about their lives ... is the goal of family historians.

With this as an objective, where does a budding family genealogist begin?

Back in the old days, family researchers had to travel to libraries, squint at microfilm readers, write away for vital documents and wait patiently for their arrival ... often to learn records could not be found. Today, the internet gives us fast access to genealogical records and more, making research easy, fun and instantly gratifying!

One thing that hasn't changed is the format researchers use to collect information. Be it on paper or in a database, you begin with yourself and grow your tree one generation at a time. But first, you need a place to record what you've learned.

LESSON 1: FAMILY GROUP SHEETS

Each bit of information concerning an ancestor and his/her immediate family is recorded onto a Family Group Sheet. Since the end result of your research efforts will be to compile complete, correct and connected families, the use of family group sheets from the beginning will make the compilation much easier.

[For a FREE download of a Family Group Sheet, go to: www.familytreemagazine.com/upload/images/pdf/familygroup.pdf.]

1. Carefully record the important facts of your own life and what you know of your parents and grandparents. Write out FULL given names, including Americanized versions, "Nicknames" [i.e. Boleslawa “Pauline” M. Gadomski] and maiden names.

2. Regardless of the form you use, get into the habit of recording actual and approximate dates as DAY/MO/YEAR [i.e. 01 Jan 0000, abt. 01 Jan 0000, bet. 0000 - 0000 or ca. 0000]. Always write out the year in full.

3. Record what you know of the location in which an event happened. For ancestors born in the U.S.: Oriental, Pamlico Co., NC; Oriental, NC; Pamlico Co.; NC; or simply NC. For European ancestors, this can become a challenge … especially where boundaries were affected by a war.

Unless you know the correct spelling of a name or place, record what you know (or think you know). For example: Starts with …; Sounds like …; Is phonetically …; or Contains... More often than not, you will find ancestors by using variant spellings on their name. If you know of common misspellings, make a note of them.

4. To the extent it is possible, collect and record whatever information you can find on siblings. As you go further back in time, you will run into dead ends. More often than not, turning your attention to a sibling will uncover clues you can use to continue your search.

Perfect practice makes perfect: Take your time, write clearly, be consistent and proofread your work.

CREATION OF YOUR FAMILY TREE BEGINS WITH YOU
Week of May 7-13, 2009

In addition to providing leads to resources where you might find information about your ancestors, biographical data fills in the spaces between limbs and branches … creating the “foliage” that will add personal interest to your research.

So it’s time to visit with members of your family to review your family group sheets and collect information they know or have gathered: You may find they have saved family papers, newspaper clippings, obituaries, family bibles, old photographs and other treasures that will be valuable as you continue your climbing your tree.

Don’t forget to bring your camera and, if you have one, a tape recorder. When you borrow photographs and vital documents, treat them with utmost care … copy them carefully and return them quickly!

LESSON 2: COLLECTING BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

When interviewing parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles the best way to collect biographical data is to ask open-ended questions (rather than ones with yes or no answers). The answers to some of these questions will be valuable when in comes time to search immigration records and U.S. Censuses. Here are some sample questions:

What's your first memory about our family?
Who's the oldest relative you remember (and what do you remember about him or her)?
Where did your family live in (1910, 1920, 1930, 1940)? Tell me about your childhood home.
Who was the first member of your family to migrate to the U.S.? Where did they come from (try to get a good spelling of their place of origin)? When did they arrive? Who were they coming to?
Where did your parents meet? (If you don’t already know, ask when and where they married. Get maiden names also!)
How did you meet your spouse? Tell me about your wedding day. (Again, ask when and where if you don’t already know.)
If you served in the military, what branch? When were you discharged?
If you went to college, where did you go and when did you graduate?
Describe your first job.
What haven't we talked about that you'd like to discuss in the time we have left? (This is a good way to begin wrapping up the interview.)

[For a FREE download of a Biographical Outline Sheet and Oral History Interview Record, go to: www.familytreemagazine.com/upload/images/pdf/biographical.pdf and www.familytreemagazine.com/upload/images/pdf/oralhistory.pdf.]

Perfect practice makes perfect: Without actual proof of an event (birth/marriage/death certificates, obituaries, etc.), it’s important to note sources of the information you collect. There is nothing more frustrating than finding new data which conflicts with something you’ve already recorded and not being able to put your hands on the original source.

RECORDS VITAL TO SEARCH
Week of June 4-10, 2009

The only way to assure you’re climbing the right family tree is to collect proof that links each generation. While online sources provide a helpful framework on which to base further study, you cannot always rely on their accuracy or authenticity. Whenever possible, your proof should be in the form of actual legal documents that attest to a vital event and its characteristics.

An official certificate of every birth, death, marriage and divorce should be on file in the locality where the event occurred or state vital statistics office. The years in which vital record-keeping officially began in each U.S. state can be found at: www.familytreemagazine.com/upload/images/PDF/vitalrecords.pdf. Some counties or towns kept statistics earlier, and some were slow to comply with state laws, so check with your ancestors’ local government for record availability.

LESSON 3: HOW TO FIND VITAL RECORDS

Access to individual state and territory information can be found at http://cdc.gov/nchs/w2w.htm. To use this tool, you must first determine where the event occurred … then click on that state or area. Vital documents will include some or all of the following information:

Birth certificate – Date/place/time time of birth with father’s name/mother’s maiden name. Usually includes the occupation of both parents with their place of residence.

Marriage license – For bride and groom provides name, age and birthplace, occupation, residence, father’s name/mother’s maiden name.

Death certificate – Date/place/time/cause of death, occupation and SSN, place of residence, spouse’s name, names of both parents and place of burial.

Social Security Death Index (SSDI) – In addition to dates of birth and death, three locations may be included on the SSDI: State of issuance (where a person then lived and applied or the location of the office issuing the SSN; residence at time of death (this is really the address of record, but not necessarily where they lived or died); and death benefit (where the lump sum death benefit/burial allowance was sent).

To search the SSDI, go to http://familytreemaker.genealogy.com/fto_ssdisearch.html. Type the name and click on “Search Now”. The result of an SSDI search on that site will also provide a hyperlink to a printer-ready letter where you can request a copy of the original SS-5 Application for Social Security Card.

At times, the SS-5 may be the only proof you’ll have for an ancestor's birth. For immigrant ancestors born in the 1860s to 1880s, it can difficult to pinpoint their place of birth. The SS-5 required that the applicant supply complete birth information. Also, the maiden name of the applicant's mother was requested, often critical information for a genealogist.

The SSDI may not include the names of everyone, even if they had a SSN. If relatives or funeral homes didn’t report the death to the Social Security Administration, or if the individual died before 1962 (when records were computerized), they probably won’t be in this database. The SSDI includes a few pre-1962 entries, but the majority of records in this index are from 1962 through present.

Other reasons your ancestor may not be in the SSDI might have to do with his/her occupation or lack thereof. Prior to the 1960s, farmers, housewives, government employees, non-employed individuals and those with separate retirement plans might not have had a SSN. It wasn’t until 1988 that all children had to have SSNs.

Perfect practice makes perfect: Beware of making assumptions about the state of residence at time of death. The "Last Residence" (more properly should be called "address of record") in SSDI is not necessarily the place of death. Take for example, an individual who may have died while vacationing away from his/her home state or the possibility that a person might have had two official residences as many "snowbirds" do. And keep in mind that ZIP codes given are those that existed at the time of the reported death ... ZIP codes have changed through the years.

CENSUS MAY UNCOVER HIDDEN ROOTS OF FAMILY TREE
Week of July 2-8, 2009

The U.S. census provides access to 150 years of detailed family data. Since information given is held confidential for 72 years, the most recent census available for research is 1930 … 1940 will be released April 2012.

Most researchers agree, the best source for searching censuses is Ancestry.com, which also provides unlimited access to its U.S. record collections. (For rate information, go to www.Ancestry.com and click on “subscribe”.) The Pamlico County Library provides FREE access to the Ancestry Library Edition.

LESSON 4: MAKING SENSE OF CENSUSES

Census worksheets allow you to see format and column headings for various years and provide a convenient method for transcribing data. Copy information exactly at it appears even when you believe it’s incorrect.

[For a FREE download of Census Worksheets, go to: www.familytreemagazine.com/censusforms.]

Because you’ll have knowledge or access to information on your 20th century ancestors, the 1920 and 1930 census is the best place to start. If you're looking for answers to specific questions, certain years are better to check than others:

1790, 1800, 1810, 1820 and 1830 – Lists only head of household, with a count of family members grouped by age/sex. Most useful for identifying ancestors in a particular locality, so you know where to search for further records. Also helpful in identifying immediate neighbors who might be related, locating possible relatives with the same name and spotting surname spelling variations.

1840 – Identifies the names/ages of Revolutionary War pensioners. Further searches of Revolutionary War sources for these individuals could uncover a wealth of genealogical clues.

1850 and 1860 – The 1850 census was the first to identify all family members by name and birth place. An indication of real estate ownership suggests that land/tax records should be searched. Questions on both censuses were essentially the same, so start with whichever one is closest in time period to other information you have on your ancestors.

1870 – First census where parents of foreign birth are indicated. Naturalized immigrants also identified, suggesting follow-up in court and naturalization sources.

1880 – First census to state relationship of individuals to head of household, meaning less guesswork when determining family relationships.

1890 – Almost completely destroyed by fire in 1921. Some states took their own between 1890 and 1900. Another source for 1890 is the Special Census of Union Army Veterans and Widows.

1900 – Only census to identify exact month/year of birth for each individual. Includes the number of years a couple was married (making it easier to identify someone as a second or third spouse), the number of children born to the mother and the number of those children still living (making it easier to match children up with the correct mother in the case of multiple spouses). This census indicates year of immigration of foreign-born individuals.

1910 – Especially useful for identifying/verifying Civil War service as it identifies veterans of the Union and Confederate Army or Navy.

1920 – Useful for tracing immigrant ancestors because it identifies the year of arrival, citizenship status (alien, first papers or naturalized) of every foreign-born individual and year of naturalization for those who became U.S. citizens.

1930 – Best census to search when trying to connect living relatives to deceased ancestors as many will be able to find grandparents living as children and young adults in this census.

Perfect practice makes perfect: An idea of alternate surname spellings and a record of siblings and spouses is often the key to tracing your ancestor. Also keep in mind that neighbors listed above and below your ancestor could be relatives (or not related yet). Before today’s mobile society, the most available candidates for marriage were people who lived nearby.

GENEALOGY LINKS MIGHT COME IN ON SHIP MANIFESTS
Week of July 30-August 5, 2009

My grandfather was 18 when he first saw Ellis Island in 1909. I've imagined that he must have felt the same mixture of exhilaration and relief as that recalled by an Italian immigrant in the book Ellis Island:

"Passengers all about us were crowding against the rail. Jabbered conversation, sharp cries, laughs, cheers and a steady rising din filled the air. Mothers and fathers lifted up their babies so that they too could see. Off to the left the Statue of Liberty, looming shadowy through the mist, brought silence to the decks of our ship. This symbol of America ... this enormous expression of what we had all been taught ... was the inner meaning of this new country we were coming to. It inspired awe in the hopeful immigrants."

Finding ancestors among the immigrants who crowded against those rails is one of the most gratifying experiences you’ll have during your research! If you’ve been following this series, you are more than well-prepared to embark on your own ocean voyage!

LESSON 5: SEARCHING SHIP MANIFESTS

Contrary to what some believe, officials at U.S. ports of entry did not change an immigrant’s name … they worked from passenger manifests coming from foreign countries. Due to changing immigration laws, shipping companies had to record different information about passengers through the years.

[For a FREE download of immigration forms, go to: www.familytreemagazine.com/immigrationforms and select the form corresponding to the year your ancestors immigrated to America.]

A comprehensive list of U.S. ports of arrival and their available passenger lists for 1820-1957 can be found at www.genesearch.com/ports.html This site includes Canadian and Mexican border crossing records, information on finding passenger lists and immigration records prior to 1820 and between 1820-1840s, a guide to finding U.S. naturalization records and much more!

Fortunately, there are a number of FREE sites where you can search ship manifests. These are my favorites:

http://www.castlegarden.org/ – Offers free access to a database of information on 10 million immigrants from 1830 to January 1892, the date Ellis Island opened. Registration is not required.

http://www.ellisisland.org/ – From 1892 to 1954, over 12 million immigrants entered the U.S. through this port. Registration is free and allows access to all of its resources and features. Start by clicking on “Sign In”. Before you embark on a search, click around the site to see all the wonderful features available to you!

http://www.familysearch.org/ – Registration is free and allows access to all site resources and features. Click on “See Prototype for Searching Millions of Records” for the best search results.

http://www.stevemorse.org/ – Steve Morse has gathered many different links (immigration, census and a wealth of others) and put them on one web page. The benefit of searching these web sites through his page is that the One-Step Portal performs better and more efficient searches of other databases than what the original database providers provide. As you look at the site, you will see that there are both free and paid sites. To best understand this website and how to use it, click on “About this Website and how to use it”.

Perfect practice makes perfect: Because every online source will have had its own team of transcribers, you will often find discrepancies from one site to another. If you can access it, ALWAYS copy your information from the original ship’s manifest.

KEEP FAMILY TREE CHRONOLOGICALLY
Week of August 27-September 2, 2009

As you collect vital dates on your ancestors, list them in chronological order and check your dates against historical events that occurred during their lifetimes. Your list will help you to identify obvious relationship errors and point you to sources where you might also find missing people.

History Central – Explore complete time lines of major events in American and World history at http://www.historycentral.com/index.html.

Historic Disasters – GenDisasters is great place for information on disasters, events and tragic accidents your ancestors endured. Go to http://www3.gendisasters.com/ and browse by disaster, state or year.

Wars – For a complete list of wars (by country, date, region and type of conflict) go to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_wars.

Worldwide Epidemics 1332-1952 – A complete list of worldwide epidemics can be found at http://www.familyhistory101.com/encyclopedia/epidemics.html.

US Federal Census – Always note the “official” date a census was taken when using it to estimate an ancestor’s year of birth. Go here for that and other interesting census facts http://www.1930census.com/united_states_federal_census.php.

The Great Depression 1929-1942 – Time line at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/rails/timeline/index.html.

Work relief programs 1933-1935 – The New Deal was the name Franklin D. Roosevelt gave to a complex package of economic programs he effected 1933-1935. Start your research on the following work relief programs at http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/index-alpha/:

Federal Emergency Relief Administration – Created unskilled jobs. (Replaced by WPA in 1935).
Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933 – Employed young men to perform unskilled work in rural areas, under U.S. Army supervision.
Tennessee Valley Authority, 1933 – An effort to modernize very poor regions (most of Tennessee). Centered on dams that generated electricity on the Tennessee River.
Public Works Administration, 1933 – Built large public works projects using private contractors (did not directly hire unemployed).
The National Youth Administration, 1933 – Addressed the needs of young men and women and worked on two levels: A student work program (which provided students with odd jobs that paid them enough to stay in school) and an out-of-school program (to set young people up with various jobs ranging from house painting to cleaning local parks … eventually came to include vocational training).
Civil Works Administration, 1933-34 – Employed up to 4 million people by building bridges, schools, hospitals, airports, parks and playgrounds.
Works Progress Administration, 1935 – A national labor program for more than 2 million unemployed. Created useful construction work for unskilled men, sewing projects for women and arts projects for unemployed artists, musicians and writers.
Social Security Act , 1935 – Provided financial assistance to the elderly and handicapped. Paid for by employee and employer payroll contributions. Required years of contributions, so first payouts were in 1942.

Perfect practice makes perfect: By now, you’ve collected a few web sites you wouldn’t want to lose. Get into the habit of storing all your favorites in a folder named “Genealogy” (within that folder you can create subfolders by subject or ancestor). Then learn how to back up and restore your Genealogy folder at http://www.computerhope.com/issues/ch000524.htm.

HANDWRITING ON WALL MAY NOT BE SO EASY TO READ
Week of September 24-20, 2009

A challenge often faced by genealogists is learning to read and understand the older language forms and handwriting styles commonly found in historical documents, such as censuses and ship manifests.

These difficulties have lead to transcription errors in the indexes of those documents and will frustrate your research attempts. But having a basic familiarity with the penmanship styles found in older, hand-written documents will allow you to overcome some transcription challenges.

LESSON 7: DECIPHERING OLD HANDWRITING

There are numerous (free) old handwriting tutorials online that can help to get you started in reading older documents, most with examples of letter and number formations, commonly used abbreviations, spellings and suggestions for making out faded, smudged or sloppy text. Here are a few tips:

Use letters from words in the document that you can read to piece together the letters in the words you are having trouble with. One trick is to start by looking for dates, which are usually present in genealogical documents. Then use the letters in the month, day of the week, etc. to help determine the writer's style.
Handwriting styles have caused indexing problems where certain similar-appearing letters have been confused with others, including: T and F; J, G and Y; I and J; K and R; O and Q; P and R; U and W. Lower case vowels, l, m, n and w are also confused for other letters.
Watch for the letter “S” in pairs. The first S in a pair was often written to look like a lower case “f”.
If you’re having trouble deciphering a word, try saying it out loud in several different ways … for example, say it the way you imagine your immigrant ancestor might have pronounced it. Or trace over it, as if you’re writing it yourself.
Keep in mind that words were often misspelled in older documents - especially surname and place names. You will even find various spellings in different parts of the same document. You can use other documents, atlases, etc. as sources to verify correct spellings.
Your best clues will come from the document itself. Read the word or name in context. If the indexed version does not seem to fit (or is out of place in an alphabetically ordered list), you should rethink the spelling.
Transcribe the document exactly as it’s written - misspellings and all. This will help to keep you from making assumptions that might trip you up in your research at a later date. Hopefully, as you go back through your records and documents, you will find new clues that were originally overlooked because the text was too hard to read.
If you can produce a hard copy, scan the document and save it as a JPEG. Open it with a photo editing program and then enlarge/darken areas you cannot read to see if that improves legibility.

Perfect practice makes perfect: Get yourself a good magnifying glass. Don't assume anything. Read slowly and with care, making sure the words make sense as you go.

LEARNING FROM PAST NEVER GETS OLD
Week of October 22-28, 2009

This is not one of my typical lessons, but rather a glimpse back to 1918-1919 when more people died as a result of the Spanish Flu Pandemic than were killed during World War I. Between March 1918 and June 1920, the total death toll was an estimated 50-100 million worldwide; in the United States about 675,000 people died.

The pandemic emerged in two waves: The first wave, known as the “three-day fever,” appeared without warning in March 1918. Few deaths were reported and victims recovered after a few days. When it resurfaced that October, it was far more severe. Scientists, doctors and health officials could not identify this disease which was striking so fast and so viciously, eluding treatment and defying control. 200,000 people died during the second wave alone … some within hours of their first symptoms. Others succumbed after a few days.

My Aunt Bernice, whose mother (my Grandfather’s first wife) became one of its victims on November 20, 1918, remembers so many people were sick that there were not enough doctors to tend them. There was a shortage of coffins and the dead had to be put in the ground as soon as possible to prevent the spread of infection. No eulogies. No choirs singing. No services. The lack of ceremony for the dead in 1918 left a lasting impression on survivors for years to come.

The staggering statistics associated with pandemics sometimes makes it difficult to remember that each number represents a single, human life … perhaps an ancestor whose cause of death would likely have been indicated as pneumonia caused by influenza.

For an intimate look at the impact it had on both survivors and the families and friends of non-survivors visit the Pandemic Flu Storybook at www.cdc.gov/about/panflu/, where you may also submit your own family’s pandemic flu story.

TODAY’S LESSON: PREPAREDNESS IS A CHOICE!

The recent outbreak of the H1N1 Flu (formerly Swine Flu) reminds us that there is no way to predict the next flu pandemic. So it’s important that we learn from lessons of the past. Also:

1. Learn what you can do to stay healthy during flu season.

2. Be mindful of conditions that contribute to the spread of contagious diseases and take appropriate action to protect yourselves and those you love.

3. Stay informed and pay attention to public health advisories.

The best sources for information on prevention and treatment can be found at the following sites: www.epi.state.nc.us/epi/gcdc/pdf/H1N1Flu_FactSheet.pdf and www.cdc.gov/flu/protect/preventing.htm.

MILITARY RECORDS OFFER TREASURE TROVE FOR GENEALOGISTS
Week of November 19-25, 2009

Most everyone has at least one relative who was in the military. The resulting records are some of the best genealogical sources you can get. Service papers and pension applications provide details about a soldier’s life, his family members and the time and places he served. Military records even cover some who weren't in the armed forces: After the Selective Service Act of 1917, 24 million men aged 18-45 filled out WWI draft registration cards between June 1917 and September 1918.

Because of military records’ centralized nature (they largely originate from the federal government), the bulk of these records remain offline at the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) Some of these records haven’t been easy to get and much of it has not yet been microfilmed or digitized. Nonetheless, an arsenal of information from just about any war awaits you online … everything from a tiny town’s casualty list to huge, government-sponsored databases.

For example, the National Park Service has completed the Civil War Soldiers and Sailors System (CWSS), a database of over 6.3 million soldier names, at www.itd.nps.gov/cwss. Paid sites, such as Ancestry.com and Footnote.com have digitized, indexed and posted thousands of military records. FREE sites, such as http://www.familysearch.org/, http://www.rootsweb.com/ and http://www.usgenweb.org/ are posting ever more actual records online. And http://www.heritagequestonline.com/, available through your library, has images of records from NARA microfilm and books of muster rolls.

In coming issues, I’ll discuss maneuvers that will help you navigate on- and offline genealogical records from the Revolutionary through Vietnam Wars, as well as information on how to order records from the NARA. But first, you need to know what to look for.

LESSON 9: SCOUTING OUT MILITARY RECORDS

Since the U.S. didn’t have a large standing army until the 20th century, most military records revolve around specific wars. What’s available depends on the war your ancestor served in. So begin by reviewing your family tree to find ancestors – especially men – who were born during the following time periods:

If the birth year is … look for records of the ...

1726-1767 … Revolutionary War (1775-1783)
1762-1799 … War of 1812 (1812-1815)
1796-1831 … Mexican War (1846-1848)
1811-1848 … Civil War (1861-1865)
1848-1881 … Spanish-American War (1898)
1849-1885 … Philippine Insurrection (1899-1902)
1872-1900 … WWI (1917-1918)
1877-1925 … WWII (1941-1945)
1900-1936 … Korean War (1950-1953)
1914-1955 … Vietnam War (1964-1972)

Even if you don't have evidence of an ancestor's military service, make a timeline of wars he lived through … it doesn't hurt to check for records if a man's age made him eligible to enlist. And don't assume your female ancestors didn't leave records: They may have nursed the injured in units such as the WWII Women's Army Auxiliary Corps, or applied for their veteran husbands' pension benefits. Even if he didn't enlist, your ancestor's card is probably on microfilm at the NARA (http://www.archives.gov/).

Perfect practice makes perfect: Before marching off on this mission, arm yourself with as much information as you can about your soldier: Full name (including middle name, alternate spellings, etc.), year of birth/death, place of birth/death, rank/kind of service, the war he served in and state from which he served.

Video ~ The Family Tree by Venice

2010-12-30T09:38:00.000-05:00

Forms Library

2010-12-29T12:24:00.000-05:00

Basic Charts & Worksheets
Every family genealogist needs certain basic charts and worksheets for tracking ancestors and research progress. The forms listed on this link belong in every genealogist's basic toolkit: http://www.familytreemagazine.com/info/basicforms

Oral History Interview Record
Family history isn't just about records and vital statistics ... it's also about the stories, memories and traditions you want to pass on to future generations. The forms listed on this link will help you preserve those precious pieces of your family's past: http://www.familytreemagazine.com/info/oralhistoryforms

Census Worksheets
Use the forms listed on this link to record information found in U.S. censuses: www.familytreemagazine.com/censusforms

Immigration Forms
The forms listed on this link are for transcribing names and information about immigrants you find on customs lists (the name for early passenger lists) and ship manifests (more-modern passenger lists). Due to changing immigration laws, shipping companies had to record different information about passengers through the years: www.familytreemagazine.com/immigrationforms

Record Worksheets
As you study genealogical records, the worksheets listed on this link help to keep detailed records of your findings: By transcribing and abstracting information, you make sure you don't miss any tidbits that may be helpful to you later: http://www.familytreemagazine.com/info/recordworksheets

Research Trackers & Organizers
The forms listed on this link will help you to keep tabs on your genealogy plans and progress, so you can research more efficiently. Great for tracking which records you've searched, which ones you need to search and what's still in the works: http://www.familytreemagazine.com/info/researchforms

These forms and more found at http://www.familytreemagazine.com/.

Ten Commandments of Genealogy

2010-12-28T06:54:00.000-05:00

The following article is from Eastman's Online Genealogy Newsletter and is copyright by Richard W. Eastman. It is re-published here with the permission of the author. Information about the newsletter is available at http://www.eogn.com.

In the course of writing this newsletter, I get to see a lot of genealogy information. Most of what I see is on the Web, although some information is in books or in e-mail. Some of what I see is high-quality research. However, much of it is much less than that. Even the shoddiest genealogy work could be so much more if the compiler had simply spent a bit of time thinking about what he or she was doing.

Creating a first-class genealogy work is not difficult. In fact, it is expected. It should be the norm. Please consider the following "rules." If you follow these guidelines, you, too, can produce high-quality genealogy reports that will be useful to others:

Never accept someone else's opinion as "fact." Be suspicious. Always check for yourself!
Always verify primary sources (see Footnote #1); never accept a secondary source (see Footnote #2) as factual until you have personally verified the information.
Cite your sources! Every time you refer to a person's name, date and/or place of an event, always tell where you found the information. If you are not certain how to do this, get yourself a copy of "Evidence Explained" by Elizabeth Shown Mills. This excellent book shows both the correct form of source citation and the sound analysis of evidence.
If you use the works of others, always give credit. Never claim someone else's research as your own.
Assumptions and "educated guesses" are acceptable in genealogy as long as they are clearly labeled as such. Never offer your theories as facts.
Be open to corrections. The greatest genealogy experts of all time make occasional errors. So will you. Accept this as fact. When someone points out a possible error in your work, always thank that person for his or her assistance and then seek to re-verify your original statement(s). Again, check primary sources.
Respect the privacy of living individuals. Never reveal personal details about living individuals without their permission. Do not reveal their names or any dates or locations.
Keep "family secrets." Not everyone wants the information about a court record or a birth out of wedlock to be posted on the Internet or written in books. The family historian records "family secrets" as facts but does not publish them publicly.
Protect original documents. Handle all documents with care, and always return them to their rightful storage locations.
Be prepared to reimburse others for reasonable expenses incurred on your behalf. If someone travels to a records repository and makes photocopies for you, always offer to reimburse the expenses.

The above "commandments" apply to online data as well as to printed information. Following the above "commandments" will increase the value of your work and make it valuable to others.

Footnote #1: A primary record is one created at or immediately after the occurrence of the event cited. The record was created by someone who had person knowledge of the event. Examples include marriage records created by the minister, census records, death certificates created within days after the death, etc. Nineteenth century and earlier source records will be in the handwriting of the person who recorded the event, such as the minister, town clerk or census taker.

Footnote #2: A secondary record is one made years after the original event, usually by someone who was not at the original event and did not have personal knowledge of the participants. Most published genealogy books are secondary sources; the authors are writing about events that occurred many years before they wrote about the event. Transcribed records are always secondary sources and may have additional errors created inadvertently by the transcriber(s). Most online databases are transcribed (secondary) sources.

"Give me your tired, your poor ..."

2010-12-27T13:20:00.000-05:00

Standing in New York Harbor at the very portal of the New World, the Statue of Liberty, one of the most colossal sculptures in the history of the world, has greeted many millions of the oppressed and venturesome of other lands who crossed the ocean in hopeful search of greater freedom and opportunity. To them, and to the whole world, the statue has become the symbol of those ideals of human liberty upon which our Nation and its form of government were founded.

To the poet Emma Lazarus, who saw refugees from persecution arriving on a tramp steamer, following incredible sufferings, the statue was The New Colossus or the Mother of Exiles. She wrote of it in 1883:

Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame,

With conquering limbs astride from land to land;

Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand

A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame

Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name

Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand

Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command

The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame.

"Keep ancient lands, your storied pomp!" cries she

With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor,

Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,

The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.

Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me,

I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"

In its international aspect the statue, which was a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, commemorates the long friendship between the peoples of the two Nations ... a friendship that has continued since the American Revolution when, implemented by the French with sinews of war, it helped turn the tide of victory to the side of the Colonies.

ELLIS ISLAND HISTORY

from EllisIsland.org

Ellis Island, a small island in New York Harbor, is located in the upper bay just off the New Jersey coast, within the shadow of the Statue of Liberty. From 1892 to 1954, over twelve million immigrants entered the United States through this gateway to the new world.

Before being designated as the site of the first Federal immigration station by President Benjamin Harrison in 1890, Ellis Island had a varied history. The local Indian tribes had called it "Kioshk" or Gull Island. Due to its rich and abundant oyster beds and plentiful and profitable shad runs, it was known as Oyster Island for many generations during the Dutch and English colonial periods. By the time Samuel Ellis became the island's private owner in the 1770s, the island had been called Kioshk, Oyster, Dyre, Bucking and Anderson's Island. In this way, Ellis Island developed from a sandy island that barely rose above the high tide mark, into a hanging site for pirates, a harbor fort, ammunition and ordinance depot named Fort Gibson and finally into an immigration station.

From 1794 to 1890, Ellis Island played a mostly uneventful but still important military role in United States history. When the British occupied New York City during the duration of the Revolutionary War, its large and powerful naval fleet was able to sail unimpeded directly into New York Harbor. Therefore, it was deemed critical by the United States Government that a series of coastal fortifications in New York Harbor be constructed just prior to the War of 1812. After much legal haggling over ownership of the island, the Federal government purchased Ellis Island from New York State in 1808. Ellis Island was approved as a site for fortifications and on it was constructed a parapet for three tiers of circular guns, making the island part of the new harbor defense system that included Castle Clinton at the Battery, Castle Williams on Governor's Island, Fort Wood on Bedloe's Island and two earthworks forts at the entrance to New York Harbor at the Verrazano Narrows. The fort at Ellis Island was named Fort Gibson in honor of a brave officer killed during the War of 1812.

Prior to 1890, the individual states (rather than the Federal government) regulated immigration into the United States. Castle Garden in the Battery (originally known as Castle Clinton) served as the New York State immigration station from 1855 to 1890 and approximately eight million immigrants, mostly from Northern and Western Europe, passed through its doors. These early immigrants came from nations such as England, Ireland, Germany and the Scandinavian countries and constituted the first large wave of immigrants that settled and populated the United States. Throughout the 1800s and intensifying in the latter half of the 19th century, ensuing political instability, restrictive religious laws and deteriorating economic conditions in Europe began to fuel the largest mass human migration in the history of the world. It soon became apparent that Castle Garden was ill-equipped and unprepared to handle the growing numbers of immigrants arriving yearly. Unfortunately compounding the problems of the small facility were the corruption and incompetence found to be commonplace at Castle Garden.

The Federal government intervened and constructed a new Federally-operated immigration station on Ellis Island. While the new immigration station on Ellis Island was under construction, the Barge Office at the Battery was used for the processing of immigrants. The new structure on Ellis Island, built of "Georgia pine" opened on January 1, 1892; Annie Moore, a 15 year-old Irish girl, accompanied by her two brothers entered history and a new country as she was the very first immigrant to be processed at Ellis Island on January 2. Over the next 62 years, more than 12 million were to follow through this port of entry.

While there were many reasons to emigrate to America, no reason could be found for what would occur only five years after the Ellis Island Immigration Station opened. During the evening of June 14, 1897, a fire on Ellis Island, burned the immigration station completely to the ground. Although no lives were lost, many years of Federal and State immigration records dating back to 1855 burned along with the pine buildings that failed to protect them. The United States Treasury quickly ordered the immigration facility be replaced under one very important condition. All future structures built on Ellis Island had to be fireproof. On December 17, 1900, the new Main Building was opened and 2,251 immigrants were received that day.

While most immigrants entered the United States through New York Harbor (the most popular destination of steamship companies), others sailed into many ports such as Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, San Francisco and Savannah, Miami, and New Orleans. The great steamship companies like White Star, Red Star, Cunard and Hamburg-America played a significant role in the history of Ellis Island and immigration in general. First and second class passengers who arrived in New York Harbor were not required to undergo the inspection process at Ellis Island. Instead, these passengers underwent a cursory inspection aboard ship; the theory being that if a person could afford to purchase a first or second class ticket, they were less likely to become a public charge in America due to medical or legal reasons. The Federal government felt that these more affluent passengers would not end up in institutions, hospitals or become a burden to the state. However, first and second class passengers were sent to Ellis Island for further inspection if they were sick or had legal problems.

This scenario was far different for "steerage" or third class passengers. These immigrants traveled in crowded and often unsanitary conditions near the bottom of steamships with few amenities, often spending up to two weeks seasick in their bunks during rough Atlantic Ocean crossings. Upon arrival in New York City, ships would dock at the Hudson or East River piers. First and second class passengers would disembark, pass through Customs at the piers and were free to enter the United States. The steerage and third class passengers were transported from the pier by ferry or barge to Ellis Island where everyone would undergo a medical and legal inspection.

If the immigrant's papers were in order and they were in reasonably good health, the Ellis Island inspection process would last approximately three to five hours. The inspections took place in the Registry Room (or Great Hall), where doctors would briefly scan every immigrant for obvious physical ailments. Doctors at Ellis Island soon became very adept at conducting these "six second physicals." By 1916, it was said that a doctor could identify numerous medical conditions (ranging from anemia to goiters to varicose veins) just by glancing at an immigrant. The ship's manifest log (that had been filled out back at the port of embarkation) contained the immigrant's name and his/her answers to twenty-nine questions. This document was used by the legal inspectors at Ellis Island to cross examine the immigrant during the legal (or primary) inspection. The two agencies responsible for processing immigrants at Ellis Island were the United States Public Health Service and the Bureau of Immigration (later known as the Immigration and Naturalization Service - INS). On March 1, 2003, the Immigration and Naturalization Service was re-structured and included into 3 separate bureaus as part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.

Despite the island's reputation as an "Island of Tears", the vast majority of immigrants were treated courteously and respectfully, and were free to begin their new lives in America after only a few short hours on Ellis Island. Only two percent of the arriving immigrants were excluded from entry. The two main reasons why an immigrant would be excluded were if a doctor diagnosed that the immigrant had a contagious disease that would endanger the public health or if a legal inspector thought the immigrant was likely to become a public charge or an illegal contract laborer.

During the early 1900s, immigration officials mistakenly thought that the peak wave of immigration had already passed. Actually, immigration was on the rise and in 1907, more people immigrated to the United States than any other year; approximately 1.25 million immigrants were processed at Ellis Island in that one year. Consequently, masons and carpenters were constantly struggling to enlarge and build new facilities to accommodate this greater than anticipated influx of new immigrants. Hospital buildings, dormitories, contagious disease wards and kitchens were all were feverishly constructed between 1900 and 1915.

As the United States entered World War I, immigration to the United States decreased. Numerous suspected enemy aliens throughout the United States were brought to Ellis Island under custody. Between 1918 and 1919, detained suspected enemy aliens were transferred from Ellis Island to other locations in order for the United States Navy with the Army Medical Department to take over the island complex for the duration of the war. During this time, regular inspection of arriving immigrants was conducted on board ship or at the docks. At the end of World War I, a big "Red Scare" spread across America and thousands of suspected alien radicals were interned at Ellis Island. Hundreds were later deported based upon the principal of guilt by association with any organizations advocating revolution against the Federal government. In 1920, Ellis Island reopened as an immigration receiving station and 225,206 immigrants were processed that year.

From the very beginning of the mass migration that spanned the years (roughly) 1880 to 1924, an increasingly vociferous group of politicians and nativists demanded increased restrictions on immigration. Laws and regulations such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, the Alien Contract Labor Law and the institution of a literacy test barely stemmed this flood tide of new immigrants. Actually, the death knell for Ellis Island, as a major entry point for new immigrants, began to toll in 1921. It reached a crescendo between 1921 with the passage of the Quota Laws and 1924 with the passage of the National Origins Act. These restrictions were based upon a percentage system according to the number of ethnic groups already living in the United States as per the 1890 and 1910 Census. It was an attempt to preserve the ethnic flavor of the "old immigrants", those earlier settlers primarily from Northern and Western Europe. The perception existed that the newly arriving immigrants mostly from southern and eastern Europe were somehow inferior to those who arrived earlier.

After World War I, the United States began to emerge as a potential world power. United States embassies were established in countries all over the world, and prospective immigrants now applied for their visas at American consulates in their countries of origin. The necessary paperwork was completed at the consulate and a medical inspection was also conducted there. After 1924, the only people who were detained at Ellis Island were those who had problems with their paperwork, as well as war refugees and displaced persons.

Ellis Island still remained open for many years and served a multitude of purposes. During World War II, enemy merchant seamen were detained in the baggage and dormitory building. The United States Coast Guard also trained about 60,000 servicemen there. In November of 1954 the last detainee, a Norwegian merchant seaman named Arne Peterssen was released, and Ellis Island officially closed.

GREAT LINKS

Statue of Liberty History from concept and construction to dedication:
http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/hh/11/hh11a.htm

Large collection of historical documents from the 1800s through 1954 with concentrations in Steamship and Ocean Liner documents and photographs, Passenger Lists, U.S. Navy Archives and addtional materials covering World Wars I and II, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and Immigration documents from Ellis Island, Castle Garden and other Immigration Stations: http://www.gjenvick.com/#ixzz10NebdVNOhttp://www.gjenvick.com/

Selected Images of Ellis Island and Immigration, ca. 1880-1920: http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/070_immi.html

Video ~ Immigration Through Ellis Island - Award Winning Documentary

2010-12-26T09:15:00.000-05:00

A Guide to Interpreting Passenger List Annotations

2010-12-25T06:29:00.000-05:00

by Marian L. Smith Historian, U.S. Immigration & Naturalization Service

with the assistance of Elise Friedman, Flora Gursky & Eleanor Bien

Passenger Lists or manifests. Every genealogist and his sister wants to find one. But after years of searching, many find a document that raises as many questions as it answers. This is especially true of passenger lists dating after 1892, which are frequently found to have a variety of markings, codes, and annotations squeezed into the margins and small blank spaces above and behind information written in the list form's columns.

These web pages are intended to provide a comprehensive reference guide to interpreting the markings, or annotations, found on immigration passenger lists. It is written for researchers with a U.S. passenger list in hand. To learn more about finding passenger lists, see JewishGen's Immigration InfoFiles and the Passenger Lists section of the JewishGen FAQ. The information is generally organized by where the annotation is found on the record--in the left margin, for example, or in the occupation column. Within each location category are examples of the various types of annotations found in that space, and an explanation of each. Every attempt has been made to provide several examples of each annotation type so that researchers may come to recognize the form and pattern that characterizes each type. Each page also has a link to a glossary of commonly-found acronyms and abbreviations.

MARKINGS ON THE MANIFEST’S LEFT MARGIN

Nearly every manifest annotation found in the far left margin was made either prior to or upon arrival, usually during immigrant inspection. Steamship company clerks found the small margin of empty paper space useful for noting a variety of information. Immigrant Inspectors also used the empty space to leave clues as to whether an immigrant passed through inspection easily, or faced closer scrutiny.

Numbers, Often in Consecutive Order

Numbers like those above are occasionally found in the left margin, especially on lists of ships from England. The numbers can have as few as 2 or 3 digits, and as many as 6 or 7 digits. These are "contract ticket" numbers issued by the steamship companies when contracting with the immigrant for their passage. The number may or may not have appeared on the immigrant's actual ticket or receipt. The steamship lines used the number as a personal identifier, and recording the number allowed the companies to match the manifest record with other business records. The numbers bear no relation to any other United States records. However, they may be useful in matching a U.S. passenger arrival record with a British departure record (British "outbound lists").

Lists from the 1890's or even the very early 1900's may have been printed by the steamship line with a "Contract Ticket" number column. This has been seen on passenger lists of the American Line from England in the mid-1890's. The presence of such a column demonstrates the importance of the information to the steamship company, and helps explain why it might be annotated at left on a list without a "Contract Ticket" column.

In some rare cases, typically on earlier lists prior to addition of the "Head Tax" column, a solitary number will appear to the left of a passenger's name. These lonely numbers are usually Head Tax receipt numbers. Notation of the receipt number may indicate either that the immigrant requested a receipt, disputed his/her requirement to pay the tax, or was only passing through the U.S. in transit (in which case the Head Tax deposit would be refunded upon their departure).

Not Shipped, N.O.B. or Did Not Sail

Often passengers booked to sail on a given ship did not depart. Perhaps they missed the ship, or changed their travel plans, or became ill and health officials prevented them from boarding the ship. Whatever the case, in some instances the change or decision occurred so late there was no time to amend the passenger list. Their names and passenger information remain on lists for ships upon which they never arrived.

To indicate the record is meaningless, steamship company employees would mark the record in one of several ways. The most common was to "line out" the entire record with dark grease pencil or ink. Some of the lines are straight across and can be difficult to differentiate from scratches on the microfilm. Others are deliberately "wavy."

Some records remain without a line, but are noted in the left margin as "N.O.B." (Not On Board), "did not sail," or, like the stamp above, "Not Shipped." It was important for the steamship company to make clear who was and was not on board the ship when it arrived in the United States. The company was responsible for paying the Head Tax on each immigrant landed, and government officials calculated the company's monthly bill using the manifest lists. The passenger booked below "cancelled."

Note well that some of those names "lined out" were on board, but are officially recorded on another page of the passenger list. The example below includes two crossed-off names because they were "Not on Board," but one name is lined-out (line 21) because he/she is a "2nd class passenger." The official record of that person is, then, on the list of second class passengers.

Letters (including "X," "D," "S.I.," "B.S.I.,") or the Word "Held"

Extremely common are letters and stamps in the left margin relating to an immigrant's detention or their being held for a Board of Special Inquiry hearing. The general rule is that some notation was made at left to indicate the immigrant was held for some reason. One cannot determine the reason by looking at the annotation, and unless it was subsequently stamped "Admitted" or "Deported," one cannot determine the outcome.

In practice, variation can be found between the records of different ports. For example, the annotation "D" on a New York list means the immigrant was temporarily detained. But on a Philadelphia list, "D" can indicate either that the immigrant was temporarily detained or that he/she was held for a Board of Special Inquiry. The letters "X," "D," and the word "Held" can mean either that the immigrant went to temporary detention or had a Special Inquiry hearing. The more specific "S.I." and "B.S.I." indicate the immigrant was held for a hearing.

Unfortunately, for many passenger lists there is no additional information on the immigrant's fate. To date, additional records are known to survive for only two ports, and only for certain years. These ports are New York and Philadelphia.

Beginning in 1903, the Immigration Service at New York began filing Records of Detained Aliens and Records of Aliens Held for Special Inquiry at the end of each passenger list. Whenever a researcher finds an annotation in the left margin suggesting the immigrant was detained or held for a hearing, he or she should turn to the end of the passenger list and check these appended records to see if they contain further information.

Philadelphia records of detained immigrants (including those held for hearings) are extensive. They date from 1882 but only extend to ca. 1909. Some, dating from 1893 to 1909, are on microfilm as National Archives publication M1500. The majority remain in hard copy at the Regional Archives in Philadelphia. Anyone finding a detention annotation on a Philadelphia passenger list from this era should seriously consider investigating the Philadelphia detention records. And for Jewish immigrants, they might also consider the HIAS records in the Jewish Archives at Philadelphia's Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies.

MARKINGS IN THE MANIFEST’S NAME COLUMN

One would assume any annotations in the name column would concern the immigrants' names, and many do. In some cases the name might have been clarified or corrected by a steamship company employee or an Immigrant Inspector.

Many of the notations found in the name column relate not to the name directly but to later record checks, usually in response to an inquiry by the immigrant himself (or herself). Officials annotated almost anything in the name column, probably because it usually provided some empty space where information could be added.

Letters "V/L" Followed by Numbers Over Numbers, Sometimes With a Date

Prior to 1924, there were no "Reentry Permits." This meant that immigrants living in the United States, who wanted to travel abroad, had no assurance they would be readmitted to the U.S. upon return. Many of them would contact the Immigration Service prior to travel and ask for some paper, or pass, to guarantee their reentry. A practice developed, especially at Ellis Island, to issue such immigrants a letter from the Port Commissioner documenting the immigrant's previous admission for permanent residence. The letter was not a guarantee, but greatly facilitated the immigrant's travel.

When the clerk verified (checked) the original passenger list in these cases, he or she would annotate the list to show the activity. The letters "V/L" or "V L" stand for Verification of Landing. The numbers refer to a New York (usually) file number wherein records of all these transactions were filed. The file did not relate to the individual. Rather, it contained stacks of incoming and outgoing letters on verification of landing matters. The files no longer survive. The annotations can be helpful, though, in that they suggest the immigrant was planning a trip abroad and may appear again on a later passenger list.

It may be that some of these verifications were performed for reasons other than reentry letters. For example, any other instance where an immigrant requested proof that he or she had been legally admitted to the United States. And there are occasions when one will find the "V/L" annotation format dated later than 1924. To see common references to Reentry Permits after July 1924, see below, and see the page on Visa annotations.

Letter "P" Or Word "Permit" With Numbers

After July 1, 1924, immigrants in the United States who wished to travel abroad could apply for and obtain a Reentry Permit. The process involved filing an application, submitting a fee, and waiting for the permit to arrive prior to departure. The application required the immigrant to name their original port, date, and ship of arrival so the record could be checked and verified. During the verification, a clerk would annotate the original record with the letter "P" or the entire word "permit," followed by the application number. The annotations can be helpful in that they suggest the immigrant was planning a trip abroad and may appear again on a later passenger list. To see the Reentry Permit noted on the return trip passenger list, see the page

on Visa annotations.

Both examples above and below show annotations including the word "Detroit," indicating the applications were filed in Detroit, Michigan, the INS office serving immigrant's current residence.

Clarified Or Corrected Names

The if, when, and how of immigrant name-changing on ship passenger lists is a matter of unending controversy. But there were simple rules. Many names were clarified as in the two examples shown here. This clarification may have been performed by a steamship company clerk prior to departure, by the ship's purser during the voyage, or by an Immigrant Inspector during the inspection process. Note the alternate names or spellings are written above or beside the original name, in a manner that would no doubt confound anyone wanting to transcribe the list.

In other instances one will find a name deliberately crossed out (just the name, not across the entire page) and another name or alternate spelling entered. In these cases the name has been officially corrected according to standard bureaucratic procedure. Immigrants who arrived after June 29, 1906, often later encountered problems naturalizing because their immigration record name did not match their true name, and their immigration record name had to appear on the Petition for Naturalization. They could, if they desired, apply for a correction of the passenger list record. In addition to filing a form (of course), they submitted evidence that they and the immigrant on the passenger list were in fact one and the same person. When the request was approved, a government clerk was authorized to officially correct the record. He/she would cross out the old name and write in the new. In rare cases one will also find dates or file number references included in this annotation.

Correspondence Or Record Checks With Other Agencies Or Governments

Among the most perplexing annotations are references to various record checks and correspondence lacking enough information for modern researchers to decipher their meaning. That said, familiarity with immigration records and procedure can often provide likely explanations or possibilities for further research. The example above includes an Ellis Island correspondence file number, "98588/162." Ellis Island files generally begin with "98" or "99." What was the subject of the correspondence? We may never know.

Another example reads "AC Warsaw 4-19-38" with what looks like the initial of whoever verified the record. "AC Warsaw" is almost certainly a reference to the United States (American) Consul in Warsaw, Poland. The U.S. Foreign Service, though the Department of State, often requested record checks from the Immigration Service in the cases of Americans in distress abroad, of immigrants stranded abroad while on a visit to the Old Country, or in connection with visa applications beginning in the early 1920's. The annotation at right indicates that in 1938 the U.S. Embassy in Warsaw had some interest in the immigrant listed. It could be the immigrant was in Warsaw, or perhaps one of the immigrant's relatives applied for a visa in Warsaw, and named the immigrant as his sponsor.

This annotation is also believed to relate to a passport or visa application to the Department of State. We know that by 1930 the State Department was active processing visa applications for relatives, and issuing passports to naturalized U.S. citizens. The annotation seems to list an application number, then a date (November 19, 1930), then the reference "D.O.S." On the other hand, the numbers may NOT relate to an application or a date, and the initials may be those of the verifier. We often must make our best guess based on understanding of immigration procedure of the time. In the same vein, the annotation on the line above our example seems to refer to correspondence between the New York (NY) immigration office and the Bureau (B/C, bureau correspondence) dated January 26, 1942.

MARKINGS ON THE MANIFEST’S OCCUPATION COLUMNREFERENCES TO OTHER PAGES OR LISTS

The most obvious markings in the occupation column relate directly to an occupation, and either correct or clarify the immigrant's trade. But the most perplexing annotations in that column have nothing to do with any occupation. Rather, they are number, letter, and date codes relating to later naturalization activity. They can be recognized by their being written--or the annotation beginning--in the occupation column, and by their adherence to a common format or style.

Numbers, Dates, Cryptic letters & Words

In 1926, the occupation column was set aside for annotations relating to the verification of immigration records for naturalization purposes. Since 1906, no immigrant who arrived after June 29, 1906, could naturalize until the government located their immigration record. Thus since 1906, after an immigrant filed a Declaration of Intention or a Petition for Naturalization in a naturalization court, the Bureau of Naturalization was called upon to provide a certification of the immigrant's arrival record. The certification, called a "Certificate of Arrival," was sent to the courthouse to satisfy the naturalization requirement that everyone who arrived since June 29, 1906 had to have a legal immigration record if they wanted to become a U.S. citizen.

From 1906 to 1926 this activity took place without any notation made on the passenger list being certified. But in 1926 verification clerks began to record the verification (record check) and certification activity on each passenger list record. This change came about in response to a terrible scandal about fraudulent naturalizations. By noting that a given immigration record had been used to support an individual naturalization, the annotation served in future to prevent anyone else from using that record for another naturalization. While the annotations may be found on any passenger list, before or after 1926, they will all relate to naturalization activity occurring in 1926 or later (see below). Remember also that the passenger lists were microfilmed in 1942/43, so records of immigrants who arrived earlier but did not begin the naturalization process until after 1942 could not be annotated.

All the verification for naturalization annotations follow a prescribed format containing one or more of the following elements: District number where the application was filed, application number, date of verification, and document issued. The table below identifies each element for the examples illustrating this page. Note that not all annotations of this type will contain every element. Examples 2, 4, and 5 do not indicate what document was issued, and examples 3 and 5 contain no date.

Example 5 suggests two family members who immigrated together also later applied for naturalization together. They applied in the same District (#18), and their application numbers are almost consecutive. Example 6, below, shows a record with two dates annotated: One for the original verification in 1935, and another from a "Recheck" in 1937.

At times, Verification Clerks could not be sure the record found really did relate to the person who claimed that arrival record on their naturalization application. If there were enough significant differences, the clerk could not certify the arrival record. Minor differences were routine--ages one or two years off, height off by a few inches, or Americanized names (Jacob for Yankel, for example). But many years difference in age/date of birth, differing eye color, or place of birth, prohibited certification without further explanation. In those cases, the clerk issued a record (Form 505, or 404), but issued no Certificate of Arrival. Hence the frequent annotation "No C/A."

Verification of Arrivals Prior to June 30, 1906

As noted above, there was no Certificate of Arrival requirement for immigrants who arrived prior to June 30, 1906. Nevertheless, one will see occational naturalization verification activity associated with pre-1906 lists. The example below is from a 1903 passenger list, and displays two characteristics of verifications for pre-1906 arrivals. One is the "X" between the district number and the application number. The "X" means the applicant did not have to pay the Certificate of Arrival fee, and in this case was exempt because he arrived before 1906. The other is the reference to issuance of a "C.L ." (or C/L), which is a Certificate of Landing. A Certificate of Landing served the same purpose as a Certificate of Arrival in the naturalization process, but since the latter were only issued to those who arrived after 1906, they needed another name for certifications from pre-1906 records.

Interpreting the Verification for Naturalization Annotations

This step is not so simple as it may seem. The presence of a verification annotation in the occupation column indicates the immigrant initiated naturalization activity between 1926 and 1942/43. In cases where no date is shown, there is no way to determine when this activity occurred. The application number is useless in finding naturalization records. Only the District key number is of limited help, in that one can usually use the number to determine a general location where the immigrant was living when he/she filed their application.

Unfortunately, the Naturalization Service would occasionally re-number all the districts. This means that Chicago might be in District #6 in 1927, but in District #11 in 1931. Chicago did not become District #9 until the early 1940's. Thus it is extremely important to know the date of the annotation if one is to convert the District number into a geographic region of the country.

The tables below show the Districts by number during different time periods. If you don't have a date, or if your date may fall on either side of a dividing line, check both or all tables for the locations. Some knowledge of the immigrant's history should allow you to guess which table fits your annotation.

ANNOTATIONS REGARDING NATIONALITY & CITIZENSHIP

Annotated references to a passenger's nationality are usually, and usually should be, in the nationality column. In fact these references might be found anywhere on the list page, and are frequently found in the name column or the left margin (as were two of the examples on this page).

References to a passengers citizenship, either by birth or naturalization, were added upon arrival by the Immigrant Inspector. The fact of the person's citizenship is the Inspector's explanation of why the individual could be admitted without further questioning.

USB or US Born

Persons born in the United States are US citizens (unless they later expatriated themselves), and are entitled to admission to their own country. Thus the annotation "US Born" has great meaning to the passenger's admission under immigration law, and it is not surprising the fact of their citizenship would be noted. The "USB" annotation is often seen in the case of children returning home after a visit abroad with their foreign-born parents. These children, though citizens, were frequently listed on a "List of Alien Passengers" so they might be listed with their parents. The fact of their US birth is noted to explain why the children were not inspected in the same manner as non-citizens.

The same principle explains the example at right, taken from the "Visa" columns of a late 1924 passenger list. Those columns normally contain information about when, where, and what sort of visa was issued to the immigant. U.S. citizens did not need such documents, so their absence was explained by giving the birthdates of the children. These may have been taken from birth certificates carried by the parents as their children's travel papers. Some similar annotations have been seen to provide the specific birth certificate number.

USC, Nat, Natz, Naturalized or Naturalization Certificate Number

Though the example shown above right is from the name column, references to a passenger's naturalized status are usually found farther right, in the nationality column or in the blank space left in the columns under heading concerning health condition, height, weight, and eye color. This example indicates the passenger was issued naturalization certificate #383553. The number "2271" means the naturalization occurred in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York in Brooklyn. The date may be the

date of naturalization, but could be the date of a verification. The six-digit number at left remains a mystery, and may have been added years later.

The images above come from the passenger list record of a naturalized citizen returning home. The annotated "USC" appears in the nationality column. Farther right, in empty space, is the reference to his naturalization in the Superior Court at Cedar Rapids, Iowa, on October 31, 1911. In the case of both examples shown, the immigrant carried evidence of his naturalization (probably his naturalization certificate) on his journey, and the Immigrant Inspector took the information directly from that document. Unfortunately, on a busy day, the Inspector might note the "USC" status and fail to record the details of the passenger's naturalization.

Yet another annotation capturing information about a naturalization is found in the name column, above the name. This naturalization took place in the US District Court in Chicago (750), and Walter Kochman was issued certificate number 2367921.

Occasionally one will find annotations that refer to other passenger lists. The other list may be another page of the same ship's list, or it may refer to a different ship arrival, on a different date, or at another port. The cross-references link passengers who are related somehow but not listed together, or links the various records of one passenger who arrived more than once. Cross-references are usually, but not always, found in the Name column.

References to Other Pages Of the Same Ship's List

The annotation at right indicates that two teenage steerage passengers are actually traveling with their mother. But their mother is a U.S. citizen, so she is listed on another page listing U.S. citizens. They are "with mother" on list of "USC"itizens, either page 27, line 25, or on lines 25 through 27.

Movements between Steerage, First and Second Class Cabin

Some immigrants changed their class of ticket either just before departure or once underway, much like airline passengers today might "upgrade" to first class just before the flight departs. If the change came at the last minute or once the ship sailed, it was too late to be recorded in the final draft of the passenger list. As a result, pursers annotated lists to show the change. The example at right, found in the name column, indicates the passenger "transferred to Third Class." The example below explains that the passenger's Steerage list record is lined out because he transferred to Second Class.

Often, when a passenger moved between classes in this manner, the result is two records of the same person on the same ship--one record on the list as originally booked, and another on the list of the class in which the immigrant arrived. The same could happen when an immigrant for some reason "missed the boat" upon which he was booked and took the next ship instead. In those cases, he may appear to arrive twice, on ships arriving one after each other. If last minute changes could cause one immigrant to be listed twice, it is reasonable to assume the same situation might also cause an immigrant to fall through the cracks and not be listed at all.

References to Other Ship Lists

Many immigrants arrived in the United States several times, and consequently have more than one passenger list record. Sometimes these additional records are only suggested by Verification of Landing annotations found in the Left Margin. But at other times, the linkage between two records of the same person are unmistakable. One of the most striking differences between an immigrant's original arrival and a later entry is the "Americanization" of their names between arrivals.

The examples below relate to three men listed together on the SS Pocahontas, which arrived in New York in mid-June, 1920. All three of the men were returning on that voyage, each having been previously admitted in earlier years. And all three have their records linked by references to earlier passenger lists. It appears all three had their records cross-referenced as a result of naturalization activity.

Note that since these annotations were made years before microfilming of the records, they make no mention of National Archives or LDS microfilm roll numbers. Rather, they rely on the volume, page, and line numbers. The page numbers correspond to "stamped" page numbers on the passenger lists that run consecutively through a volume (as opposed to other numbers original to the ship list).

MARKINGS IN OTHER MANIFEST COLUMN

In the Head Tax Column

Until 1952, there was a "Head Tax" on each immigrant entering the United States. For most immigrants, the tax was included in the price of their steamship ticket and paid by the steamship company. The same was true for passengers who came by railroad or ferry across the Northern and Southern Borders. Those immigrants who came "under their own steam" had to pay at the door.

Not everyone had to pay the Head Tax. Children under 16 were exempt, as were returning residents, citizens/natives of Canada, Mexico, and most Caribbean islands. Also exempt were "Non-Immigrants," that is, people who were not coming to live in the U.S. permanently. In this category were visitors, tourists, and people traveling through U.S. territory in transit to another country. Many nonimmigrants had to pay the Head Tax as a deposit to guarantee they would leave as promised. Those "transits" who paid a Head Tax deposit got a receipt and had the fee refunded when they departed.

Many returning residents disputed their need to pay the Head Tax, claiming they already paid it upon their first arrival. They usually paid the tax, got a receipt, went to their home in the U.S., then pursued their refund by mail.

In the Can Read and Write Column

The Immigration Act of 1917 first required that immigrants coming to live in the U.S. permanently be able to read and write in their native language. Thus passenger lists after 1917 include a column asking whether the passenger can read and/or write, and in what language. Whenever an Immigrant Inspector suspected that an applicant for permanent admission was illiterate, he could send them for a literacy (reading) test.

The government initially tested the immigrants by having them read selected passages from the Bible, but it became clear this system could be controversial. So the Immigration Service soon developed a rather complicated system to perform the testing. First, each known language was issued a number. Then, a number of phrases and passages in each language were printed on slips of paper (one phrase per slip), and each phrase received a serial number. So each slip had one number for the language, and another for the phrase (i.e., #-####).

A second set of slips were printed in English, and numbered with the exact correponding numbers. The phrases usually contained simple instructions, such as "Get up, open the door, and return to your chair," or "Shake the hand of the person next to you." The literacy test involved first determining what language the immigrant spoke/read, locating a slip for that language, and giving the immigrant the test language slip and the testing official the corresponding English language slip. By reading the corresponding instructions in English and observing the immigrant's actions, even an Inspector who spoke only English could discern whether the person before him could read.

The passenger manifest would later be annotated with the number of the test slip. The notes indicated both that the immigrant was tested and exactly which test was given. A test slip number by itself usually indicates the immigrant passed. If he/she failed, the annotation often also includes the words "cannot read." If their illiteracy became grounds for exclusion (i.e., the reason to send them back), it should appear on a List of Aliens Held for Special Inquiry.

Hospital Stamps or Medical Annotations

Some records of immigrants who were held for real or suspected ailments bear a stamp reading "IN HOSPITAL." Many also have stamps indicating the end of their hospital stay, as either "discharged," "died in hospital," or "deported." If an immigrant was hospitalized, beginning in 1903 at New York the immigrant should also appear on a List of Aliens Detained or a List of Aliens Held for Special Inquiry. If they were hospitalized at Philadelphia ca. 1882 to ca. 1902, there may be additional records at the National Archives in Philadelphia. There are no known additional records for other ports.

Any immigrant whom the Public Health Service doctors thought might be sick, mentally ill, or otherwise unable to take care of themselves might be issued a Medical Certificate (click here to see a 1906 Medical Certificate). Those immigrants certified then went for a full examination by medical staff. They may not have been hospitalized, but many ship lists bear annotations noting Medical certificates, like those illustrated below, both certifying "senility":

Note the examples above and below both contain some language saying the doctor was of the opinion the condition would affect the immigrant's ability to earn a living (that is, a Likely Public Charge, or LPC).

Non-Immigrant Stamps

The question of how much money an immigrant had in his possession is related to his or her ability to support themselves in the United States and not become a Likely Public Charge (LPC). They needed enough money to pay for transportation, food, and lodging until they found a job, a place to live, etc. The amount needed would differ for different immigrants. Those coming to live with family members needed less cash on hand than those with only temporary lodging arranged. And those with scarce or marketable skills needed less money than common laborers, especially at times of high unemployment in the United States.

Immigrants were frequently less than truthful about the amont of money in their possession. Some claimed to have more money than they had, thinking the higher number would improve their chance of admission to the United States. Others claimed far less than was true, fearing their life's savings would be stolen by other passengers, or taken from them by corrupt border guards encountered on their journey.

Immigrant Inspectors often corrected the amount during immigrant inspection. Small variations are expected, explained by the fact that some funds might be spent while aboard the ship. Large differences are usually explained by the fact that many immigrants hid the fact that they carried large amounts of money until they arrived in America.

Discharged at Pier, Discharged at Dock

Some passenger lists contain stamps or annotations indicating a passenger was "discharged" at the pier or dock. First and second class passengers were generally inspected on board the ship and allowed to proceed while steerage immigrants lined up to board barges or ferries to Ellis Island. United States citizens listed on alien pages often display a "US Citizen discharged at pier" stamp. The example at right is from the record of a 26 year-old student "d[is]c[harge]d at dock" by Inspector Biglin. Whenever a passenger is so annotated, it means they did not proceed with others on that page toward extended immigrant inspection.

GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS

Many acronyms and abbreviations are found on the manifests and are used on this website. Below is a listing of the most commonly used acronyms and abbreviations, what they stand for and what page of this site further information can be found on.

Acronym/Abbreviation ... Stands for ... Found here...

404 ... Form 404 - Arrival Information ... Occupation Column
505 ... Form 505 - Arrival Information ... Occupation Column
ACL ... Alien Contract Labor ... Special Inquiry
B/C ... Bureau Correspondence ... Name Column
B-i-l ... Brother-in-law ... Record of Detained Aliens
B.S.I. ... Board of Special Inquiry ... Left Margin
C ... Certificate (usually) ... Nationality and Citizenship
C/A ... Certificate of Arrival ... Occupation Column
C.L. ... Certificate of Landing ... Occupation Column
CL ... Contract Labor ... Special Inquiry
D ... Detained ... Left Margin
Dcd. ... Discharged ... Other
Dep.-Excl. ... Deportable and Excludable ... Special Inquiry
D.O.S. ... Department of State ... Name Column
Husb ... Husband ... Record of Detained Aliens
LPC ... Likely Public Charge ... Special Inquiry or Other
Med Cert ... Medical Certificate ... Special Inquiry or Other
Nat or Natz ... Naturalized ... Nationality and Citizenship
N.O.B. ... Not On Board ... Left Margin
P ... Permit ... Name Column
Rech ... Recheck ... Occupation Column
R.R. ... Railroad ... Record of Detained Aliens
S.I. ... Special Inquiry ... Left Margin
Tel $ ... Telegram sent for money ... Record of Detained Aliens
USB ... US Born ... Nationality and Citizenship
USC ... United States Citizen ... References to Other Pages or Lists
V/L ... Verification of Landing ... Name Column
X ... "Detained" ... Left Margin

Video ~ Get Original Genealogy and Family History Records

2010-12-24T20:59:00.000-05:00

Making Sense of the Soundex

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Soundex codes are four-character representations based on the way names sound rather than the way they are spelled. They were used extensively by the U.S. Work Projects Administration (WPA) crews working in the 1930s to organize Federal Census data from 1880 to 1920. (Pictured: WPA Census Project Historical Records Survey workers wearing masks while inventorying and surveying records in sub-cellar below river level, NY, NY.)

Soundex is also very popular in genealogy software and databases. If you search many genealogical records, sooner or later you will need to use it because you can often find a person by his or her code, even when the name has been misspelled.

It isn't difficult to learn. Every code consists of a letter and three numbers. The letter is always the first letter of the surname and the numbers are assigned to the remaining letters of the surname according to the following guide. When necessary, zeros are added at the end to produce a four-character code.

EACH NUMBER REPRESENTS LETTERS

1 = B, F, P & V
2 = C, G, J, K, Q, S, X & Z
3 = D & T
4 = L
5 = M & N
6 = R

NO CODE

A, E. I, O, U, H, W & Y

MORE COMPLEX RULES

If the surname has any double letters, they should be treated as one letter. (For example: Gutierrez is coded G-362 (G, 3 for the T, 6 for the first R, second R ingored, 2 for the Z.)
If the surname has different letters side-by-side that have the same number in the soundex coding guide, they should be treated as one letter. (Examples: Pfister is coded as P-236 - P, F is ignored, 2 for the S, 3 for the T, 6 for the R; Jackson is coded as J-250 - J, 2 for the C, K is ignored, S is ignored, 5 for the N, O is added; Tymczak is coded T-522 - T, 5 for the M, 2 for the C, Z is ignored, 2 for the K. Since the vowel "A" separates the Z & K, the K is coded.)
If a surname as a prefix such as Van, Con, De, Di, La or Le, code both with and without the prefix because the surname might be listed under either code. Note that Mc and Mac are NOT considered prefixes. (For example, VanDeusen might be coded two ways: V-532 - V, 5 for the N, 3 for the D, 2 for the S OR D-250 - D, 2 for the S, 5 for the N, O is added.)
If a vowel (A, E, I, O, U) separates two consonants that have the same soundex code, the consonant to the right of the vowel is coded. (Example: Tymczak is coded as T-522 - T, 5 for the M, 2 for the C, Z is ignored & 2 for the K.) Since the vowel "A" separates the Z and K, the K is coded.
If "H" or "W" separate two consonants that have the same soundex code, the consonant to the right of the vowel is not coded. (Example: Ashcraft is coded A-261 - A, 2 for the S, C is ignored, 6 for the R, 1 for the F). It is not coded A-226.

AMERICAN INDIAN & ASIAN NAMES

A phonetically-spelled American Indian or Asian name was sometimes coded as if it were one continuous name. If a distinguishable surmame was given, the name may have been coded in the normal manner.

MAKING SENSE OF IT ALL

To figure out a surname's code, follow this simple rule:

Eliminate A, E, I, O, U, W, Y & H
Write the first letter as is followed by the codes found in the table above

No matter how long or short the surname is, the soundex code is always the first letter of the name followed by three numbers. If you have coded the first letter and three numbers, but still have ore letters in the name, ignore them! If you have run out of letters in the name before you have three numbers, then add zeroes. Here are more examples:

JOHNSON = JNSN = J525 (ignored the vowels)
WASHINGTON = WSNGTON = W252 (ignored the ending TN)
KUHN = KN = K500 (add zeroes to the end)
LEE = L-000 (zeroes added)

Think through the possible variant spellings, misspellings and misreadings of the surname you are researching before concluding that it can't be found in the soundex listing. If all else fails, you'll find a Soundex Code Generator at http://www.progenealogists.com/soundex.htm .

U.S. Census Annotations

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No matter where in the world they are taken, census schedules usually offer very little room. Therefore, census takers often found it necessary to use abbreviations to get all of the required information onto the census form. These abbreviations will provide important information that you should not overlook!

CITIZENSHIP STATUS
Al - Alien (Not Naturalized)
Na - Naturalized
NR - Not Recorded or Not Reported
Pa - First Papers Filed (Seclaration of Intent)

RACE
B - Black
Ch - Chinese
Fil - Filipino
In - Indian
Hin - Hindu
Jp - Japanese
K - Korean
Mu - Mulatto
W - WhitE
Ot - Other

HOUSEHOLD
A - Aunt
Ad - Adopted Ad
AdCl - Adopted Child
AdD - Adopted Daughter
AdGcl - Adopted Grandchild
AdM - Adopted Mother
AdS - Adopted Son
AL - Aunt-In-Law
Ap - Apprentice
Asst - Assistant
At - Attendant

Bar - Bartender
Bo - Boarder
BBoy - Bound Boy
BGirl - Bound Girl
B - Brother
Bl - Brother-In-Law
Bu - Butler

C - Cousin
CA – Confederate Army Survivor
Cap - Captain
Cha - Chambermaid
Cil - Cousin-In-Law Cl - Child
Coa - Coachman
Com - Companion
CN – Confederate Navy Survivor

D - Daughter
Dl - Daughter-In-Law
Dla - Day Laborer
Dom - Domestic
Dw - Dish Washer

Emp - Employee
En - Engineer

F - Father
FaH - Farm Hand
FaL - Farm Laborer
FaW - Farm Worker
FF – Foster Father
Fi - Fireman
FirstC - First Cousin
FL - Father-In-Law
FM – Foster Mother
FoB - Foster Brother
FoSi - Foster Sister
FoS - Foster Son

GA – Great Aunt
Gcl - Grandchild
Gd - Granddaughter
Gf - Grandfather
GGF - Great Grandfather
GGM - Great Grandmother
GGGF - Great Great Grandfather
GGGM - Great Great Grandmother
GM - Grandmother
Gml - Grandmother-In-Law
Gn - Great- or Grandnephew
Gni - Great- or Grandniece
Go - Governess
GodCl - God Child
Gs - Grand Son
Gsl - Grand Son-In-Law
GU – Great Uncle
Gua - Guardian

Hb - Half Brother
Hbl - Half Brother-In-Law
He - Herder
Help – Help or Helper
HGi - Hired Girl
HH - Hired Hand
Hlg - Hireling
Hk - Housekeeper
Hm – Hired Man
HMaid - Housemaid
HSi - Half Sister
HSil - Half Sister-In-Law
Hw - House Worker

I - Inmate

L - Lodger
La- Laborer
Lau - Laundry or Launderer

M - Mother
Man - Manager
Mat - Matron
ML - Mother-In-Law
N - Nephew
Ni - Niece
Nl - Nephew-In-Law
Nil - Niece-In-Law
Nu - Nurse
P - Patient
Pa - Partner
Ph - Physician
Por - Porter
Pr - Prisoner
Pri - Principal
Prv - Private
Pu - Pupil

R - Roomer

S - Son
Sa - Sailor
Sal - Saleslady
Sb - Step Brother
Sbl - Step Brother-In-Law
Scl - Step Child
Sd - Step Daughter
Sdl - Step Daughter-In-Law
Se - Servant
SeCl - Servant's Child
Sf - Step Father
Sfl - Step Father-In-Law
Sgd - Step Granddaughter
Sgs - Step Grandson
Si - Sister
SIL – Sister-In-Law
Sl - Son-In-Law
Sm - Step Mother
Sml - Step Mother-In-Law
Ss - Step Son
Ssi - Step Sister
Ssil - Step Sister-In-Law
Ssl - Step Son-In-Law
Su - Superintendent

Ten - Tenant

U - Uncle
UA – Union Army Survivor
Ul - Uncle-In-Law

Vi - Visitor

W - Wife
Wa - Warden
Wai - Waitress
Wkm – Workman
Wt - Waiter

Nonpopulation Census Records

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Found at http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/census/nonpopulation/#mort
Adapted from Claire Prechtel-Kluskens, "The Nonpopulation Census Schedules," The Record, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 9 & 25 (Sept. 1995)

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture, mortality and social statistics schedules are available for the census years of 1850, 1860, 1870 and 1880. Manufacturing schedules are available for 1820, 1850, 1860, 1870 and 1880. They are arranged by state, then by county and then by political subdivision (township, city, etc.). These schedules can add "flesh" to the bones of ancestors and provide information about the communities in which they lived.

Schedules of business are available for 1935 for these industries: advertising agencies, banking and financial institutions, miscellaneous enterprises, motor trucking for hire, public warehousing and radio broadcasting stations.

Agricultural Schedules

Agricultural schedules of 1850, 1860 and 1870 provide the following information for each farm: name of owner or manager, number of improved and unimproved acres, and the cash value of the farm, farming machinery, livestock, animals slaughtered during the past year and "homemade manufactures." The schedules also indicate the number of horses, mules, "milch cows," working oxen, other cattle, sheep and swine owned by the farmer. The amount of oats, rice, tobacco, cotton, wool, peas and beans, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, barley, buckwheat, orchard products, wine, butter, cheese, hay, clover seed, other grass seeds, hops, hemp, flax, flaxseed, silk cocoons, maple sugar, cane sugar, molasses and beeswax and honey produced during the preceding year is also noted. The 1880 schedules provide additional details, such as the amount of acreage used for each kind of crop, the number of poultry and the number of eggs produced.

Exclusions: Not every farm was included in these schedules. In 1850, for example, small farms that produced less than $100 worth of products annually were not included. By 1870, farms of less than three acres or which produced less than $500 worth of products were not included.

Manufacturing Schedules

The quantity and quality of data in manufacturing schedules varies by census year.

1810 ~ An Act of Congress of May 1, 1810, the Congress directed that "an account of the several manufacturing establishments and manufactures" be made. However, neither Congress nor the Secretary of the Treasury provided the U.S. Marshals with specific instructions as to what information to collected. As a result, the quality and quantity of the information collected varied greatly. The information will be found as annotations on the regular census schedules found in National Archives microfilm publication M252, Third Census of the United States, 1810 (71 rolls). Examples of these annotations are:

James Weston [sic, Westurn], Orwell, Rutland Co., VT, p. 179: 7 sheep, one spinning wheel, one little spinning wheel.
Eli Waste, Wilmington, Windham Co., VT, p. 409: owns one loom; fabrics produced during the preceding year (in yards): 60 woolen, 50 linen, 10 cotton, 50 mixed fabrics.

1820 & 1850-1880 ~ Manufacturing schedules in 1820, 1850 and 1860 reported the name of the manufacturer; the type of business or product; the amount of capital invested; the quantities, kinds and value of raw materials used; the quantities, kinds and value of product produced annually; the kind of power or machinery used; the number of men and women employed; and the average monthly cost of male and female labor. The amount of detail reported in these schedules increased in 1870 and again in 1880. In 1880, supplemental schedules were also used for specific industries, such as for boot and shoemaking, lumber and saw mills, flour and grist mills.

Exclusions: Small manufacturing operations that produced less than $500 worth of goods were not included on any of the schedules.

Search Strategy for Agricultural and Manufacturing Schedules

Two research strategies may enable researchers to find "unexpected" information:

Example 1 ~ "Sideline" Businesses--Researchers should search both the agriculture and manufacturing schedules, especially if their ancestors lived in rural areas. Farmers often had significant "sideline" manufacturing businesses, such as a tanning, milling, coopering, or cheese making. Some 1850 residents of Geauga County, Ohio, provide a good example of this phenomena. The following men are listed as farmers on the population census, and are also listed in the manufacturing schedule as being a cooper (Orrin Tucker), cheese maker (M.S. Barnes, Lewis S. Pope), saw miller (Bushnell Austin, James Moffat, Hiram Haskins), grist miller (Elijah Branch, Daniel and Eleazer Punderson, James Fuller), or tanner (Lewis Guitner, Augustus Gilbert).

Thus, a researcher interested in Lewis S. Pope, for example, would learn from the 1850 agricultural schedule that his farm, worth $5,000, consisted of 300 improved and 60 unimproved acres. His farming implements and tools were worth $100, and his livestock was worth $1,000. On June 1, 1850, he owned 4 horses, 46 milch cows, 2 working oxen, 14 sheep and 2 swine. During the preceding year, Lewis slaughtered $40 worth of animals, and his farm produced 150 bushels of Indian corn, 40 pounds of wool, 50 bushels of Irish potatoes, 800 pounds of butter, 2,000 pounds of cheese, 100 tons of hay and $10 worth of orchard products. From the 1850 manufacturing schedule, the researcher would learn that Lewis invested $700 in his cheese-making business and that he annually produced 7 tons of cheese worth $750 from 10 tons of curd costing $500. He employed three males to whom he paid a total of $45 per month (i.e., $15 each). Since Lewis made only one ton (2,000 pounds) of cheese from the milk that his own 46 cows produced, it is logical to infer that his cheese-making business (7 tons) was conducted by buying milk from area farmers and turning it into cheese.

Example 2 ~ Nonresidents Enumerated--The agriculture and manufacturing schedules are not limited to persons who resided in the particular township or county. For example, Alfred B. Bridestone resided on the east side of Cleveland, Cuyahoga County, Ohio, according to the 1870 population census. However, he is listed--as A.B. Bridston--on the 1870 agricultural schedule as the proprietor of a 41 acre farm in rural Chester Township, Geauga County, some 12 miles from urban Cleveland. Was this fact important? For one researcher, finding Alfred on the agricultural schedule "solved" the mystery of how Alfred's stepson, Fred T. Brown, probably met his future wife, Sabra M. Hayford, whom he married in 1878. Subsequent research in Geauga County deeds revealed that Alfred's farm was just two miles from Sabra's father's farm. Until these discoveries, the researcher did not know of any pre-1878 connection between the Brown-Bridestone family and Geauga County, where the Hayford family had lived since 1833.

Mortality Schedules

In 1850, 1860, 1870 and 1880 census enumerators were directed to secure in addition to the usually required census data, information as to all persons dying within the 12 months preceding the census taking. These lists became known as the "Mortality Schedules".

Mortality schedules record deaths in the year preceding the taking of the census. For example, the 1860 mortality schedules include persons who died between June 1, 1859 and May 31, 1860. For each person, the following information is listed: name, age, sex, marital status if married or widowed, state or country of birth, month of death, occupation, cause of death and the length of the final illness.

These schedules may be the only record of death for some individuals, as many states did not require recording of deaths until the late nineteenth century. In addition, gravestones or cemetery records may be nonexistent. For example, a comparison of the 1860 Geauga County mortality schedule with Violet Warren and Jeannette Grosvenor, A Monumental Work: Inscriptions and Interments in Geauga County, Ohio, Through 1983 (Evansville, IN: Whipporwill Publications, 1985), found 52 persons for whom there is no gravestone or other record of burial in that county. There were also 58 children born after the 1850 census whose only "census record" is the 1860 mortality schedule. It may also be the only record of existence for children who have no gravestone. See Raconteur, Vol. 17 (Jan.-Mar. 1994): 918-923, 927-934, newsletter of the Geauga County (Ohio) Genealogical Society.

Some online transcriptions do not include all data found on the original mortality schedule images. Hundreds of counties have been transcribed and placed online.

Social Statistics Schedules

Social statistics schedules provide information about the ancestor's community. In 1850 through 1870, these schedules indicate for each political subdivision the value of real estate; annual taxes; number of schools, teachers and pupils; number and type of libraries and the number of volumes they have; name, type and circulation of newspapers; the types of church denominations, the number of people each church can seat and the value of their property; the number of native and foreign-born paupers and the cost of supporting them; the number of native and foreign-born criminals convicted and in prison; and the average wages paid to farm hands, day laborers, carpenters and female domestics. Note that these schedules provide only statistical data, not information about specific individuals. In contrast, the 1880 schedules of delinquent, defective and dependent classes provide information about deaf, dumb, blind and criminal persons who are listed by name.

Business Schedules, 1935

Microfilmed schedules relate to advertising agencies, banking and financial institutions, miscellaneous enterprises, motor trucking for hire, public warehousing, and radio broadcasting stations.

History of Business Statistics Collection by the Census Bureau

The Census Bureau established a Current Business Division and a Distribution Division on July 1, 1928, which were consolidated into a Current Business and Distribution Division on July 1, 1929; this Division was abolished on July 10, 1930. Then, on December 4, 1933, the Census Bureau established a Division of Business on December 4, 1933, with Fred A. Gosnell as Chief Statistician. This Division, which had also been known as the Business Census Division, was renamed the Business Division effective July 27, 1943. These successive Divisions supervised the business censuses taken under section 4 of an act of June 18, 1929 (46 Stat. 22), authorizing a census of distribution, the taking of business censuses set up as relief projects, and the collection of monthly and annual business statistics.

The suggestion that the Census Bureau should take a census of distribution or business, in cooperation with the U.S. Chamber of Commerce and trade organizations, had been presented in December 1926, at a meeting of the Committee on Collection of Business Figures. As a result, a trial census of distribution had been taken in 1927 in 11 cities. The schedules for the 1929 census of distribution were based largely on the experience gained in 1927. The 1929 Census of Distribution covered retail and wholesale trade, hotels, the construction industry and the distribution of goods by manufacturers.

The 1933 Census of Business gathered data on retail and wholesale trade, service businesses, places of amusement and hotel establishments. The 1935 Census of Business comprised a complete census of retail and wholesale trade, service businesses, amusement enterprises, hotels, radio stations, advertising agencies, banking, insurance, real estate, bus transportation, trucking, warehousing, the construction industry and the distribution of manufacturers' goods through primary channels. The 1937-1938 Census of Business was a sampling of wholesale and retail trade. The 1939 Census of Business covered retail and wholesale trade, service businesses, places of amusement, hotels, construction, sales-finance companies, power laundries and dry cleaning establishments.

The 1933, 1935 and 1937-1938 censuses of business were set up as relief projects and the 1933 census was financed by the Civil Works Administration.

An act of June 19, 1948 (62 Stat. 478), provided that a census of business be taken for the year 1948 and at five-year intervals thereafter. The objective of the 1948 Census of Business was a comprehensive description of the country's distribution structure in terms of wholesale, retail and service businesses classified by specific types of business and by State, county and locality.

Scope of the 1935 Census of Business

The 1935 Census of Business was the largest and most inclusive inventory of business establishments undertaken by the Bureau of the Census up to that time. Much broader in scope than either the Census of Distribution of 1929 or the Census of American Business of 1933, the data for this census, when considered together with the Census of Manufacturers and the Census of Agriculture of the same year, permitted a fairly complete analysis of American economic life.

The Census was designed to provide a picture of essential items of business information concerning most lines of business activity in the United States. The severity and duration of the depression of the 1930's indicated the need for an intensive study of the business structure of the United States. This need for detailed economic data was felt by both government and business as a source for planning methods of increasing business activity, thereby stimulating economic recovery.

Funds to defray the cost of the 1935 Census of Business and for the subsequent publication of related reports were furnished by the Works Progress Administration. The canvassing of businesses began on June 2, 1936 and all final reports were issued by June 30, 1937. (For titles of the reports, see Catalog of United States Census Publications, 1790-1945. As of 1953, complete sets of published reports were available at the Library of Congress, Department of Commerce Library and the National Archives.)

Fifteen categories of businesses were surveyed, including advertising agencies, banks, bus transportation, construction, distribution of manufacturers' sales, financial institutions, hotels (including tourist camps), insurance and real estate, miscellaneous enterprises (primarily nonprofit organizations), motor trucking for hire, public warehousing, radio broadcasting, retail trade, service and amusement, whole trade.

Upon completion of tabulations and reports, the Department of Commerce, under authority granted by Congress, disposed of the schedules relating to the following: construction; distribution of manufacturers' sales; and hotels, retail trade and service and amusement. (Construction: 75th Cong., 1st sess., H. Rep. No. 1538, July 21, 1937, and 78th Cong., 1st sess., H. Rep. No. 555, June 16, 1943; Manufacturers' sales: 81st Cong., 2d sess., H. Rep. No. 3208, Dec. 19, 1950; Service and amusement: 78th Cong., 1st sess., H. Rep. No. 555, June 16, 1943).

The schedules relating to advertising agencies, banks, bus transportation, financial institutions, insurance and real estate, miscellaneous, motor trucking for hire, public warehousing and radio broadcasting were retained and transferred to the custody of the National Archives in 1941 and 1946.

In 1953, in order to dispose of the paper schedules, the National Archives transferred to microfilm the following categories of schedules: advertising agencies, banks and other financial institutions, miscellaneous enterprises, motor trucking for hire, public warehousing and radio broadcasting. Disposal of the original paper schedules after microfilming was authorized by Congress (83d Cong., 1st Sess. H. Rept. 573, June 17, 1953). The remaining schedules, relating to bus transportation, insurance and real estate, service and amusement and wholesale trade were retained in paper form because "resources required for extensive rearrangement prior to microfilming were not available."

Available 1935 Census of Business Microfilm Publications

Roll lists are available for the six 1935 Census of Business microfilm publications:

M1797. Advertising Agencies (1 roll)
M2066. Banking and Financial Institutions (31 rolls)
M2067. Miscellaneous Enterprises (43 rolls)
M2068. Motor Trucking for Hire (103 rolls)
M2069. Public Warehousing (6 rolls)
M2070. Radio Broadcasting Stations (1 roll)

WHERE TO FIND THESE RECORDS

Washington, DC
You may do research in nonpopulation census records in person at the National Archives Building, 700 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20408-0001. Go to Room 400, the Microfilm Reading Room. Staff is available there to answer your questions. Check the online Microfilm Catalog for available nonpopulation census microfilms. Hint: Use nonpopulation, manufacturing, mortality, or 1935 census as keywords.

All microfilmed records may be examined during regular research room hours in Room 400; no prior arrangement is necessary. Researchers coming from a distance may wish to call in advance of their visit (1) to verify research room hours and (2) to have any additional questions answered. The Consultant's Office can be reached at 202-501-5400.

Regional Records Services Facilities
Some National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) Regional Records Services Facilities have selected nonpopulation census records. Check the online Microfilm Catalog for available nonpopulation census microfilms. Hint: Use nonpopulation, manufacturing, mortality, or 1935 census as keywords.

State Archives
If the nonpopulation census schedules in which you are interested are not available from NARA, then you should contact the state archives or equivalent agency, which may make microfilmed records available through interlibrary loan.

NARA NONPOPULATION CENSUS MICROFILM LIST

Alabama
Alaska
American Samoa
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Guam
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Virgin Islands
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming

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Cousins Defined

2010-12-18T20:00:00.000-05:00

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In kinship terminology, a cousin is a relative with whom one shares a common ancestor (or ancestors). In modern usage, the term is rarely used when referring to a relative in one's own line of descent, or where there is a more specific term to describe the relationship, i.e., brother, sister, aunt, uncle. The term blood relative can be used synonymously, and underlines the existence of a genetic link. A system of degrees and removals is used to describe the relationship between the two cousins and the ancestor they have in common.

Family tree showing the relationship of each person to the orange person. Cousins are colored green. The genetic degree of relationship are marked in red boxes by percentage (%).

The degree (first, second, third cousin, etc.) indicates one less than the minimum number of generations between both cousins and the nearest common ancestor. For example, a person with whom one shares a grandparent (but not a parent) is a first cousin; someone with whom one shares a great-grandparent (but not a grandparent) is a second cousin; and someone with whom one shares a great-great-grandparent (but not a great-grandparent) is a third cousin; and so on.

The removal (once removed, twice removed, etc.) indicates the number of generations, if any, separating the two cousins from each other. The child of one's first cousin is one's first cousin once removed because the one generation separation represents one removal. Oneself and the child are still considered first cousins, as one's grandparent (this child's great-grandparent), as the most recent common ancestor, represents one degree. Equally the child of one's great (also known as "grand")-aunt or uncle (who is one's parent's cousin) is one's first cousin once removed because their grandparent (one's own great-grandparent) is the most recent common ancestor.

Non-genealogical usage often eliminates the degrees and removals, and refers to people with common ancestors merely as cousins or distant cousins. Alternatively, the terms 'second cousin' and 'first cousin once removed' are often incorrectly used interchangeably. The system can handle kinships going back any number of generations (subject to the genealogical information being available).

WHAT IS A "COUSIN CHART"?

A cousin chart, or table of consanguinity, is helpful in identifying the degree of cousin relationship between two individuals using their most recent common ancestor as the reference point. Cousinship between two individuals can be specifically described in degrees and removals by determining how close, generationally, the common ancestor is to each individual.

Additional modifying words are used to clarify the exact degree of relatedness between the two people. Ordinal numbers are used to specify the number of generations between individuals and a common ancestor, and further clarification of exact cousinship is made by specifying the difference in generational level between the two cousins, if any, by using degrees of removal. For example, "first cousins once removed" describes two individuals with the common ancestor being the grandparent of one cousin (one "degree") and the great-grandparent of the other cousin (two "degrees"). The degree of lowest number is considered the degree. The cousins themselves are one generation different from each other (one remove). So, the difference between the degrees is the "removed" part of the equation.

There is a mathematical way to identify the degree of cousinship shared by two individuals. Each "great" or "grand" in the description of one individual's relationship to the common ancestor has a numerical value of 1.

Example 1: If person one's great-great-great grandfather is person two's grandfather, then person one's "number" is 4 (great + great + great + grand = 4) and if person two's "number" is 1 (grand = 1). The smaller of the two numbers is the degree of cousinship. The two people in this example are first cousins. The difference between the two people's "numbers" is the degree of removal. In this case, the two people are thrice (4 - 1 = 3) removed, making them first cousins thrice removed.

Example 2: If someone's great-great-great grandparent (great + great + great + grand = 4) is another person's great-great-great grandparent (great + great + great + grand = 4), then the two people are 4th cousins. There is no degree of removal, because they are on the same generational level (4 - 4 = 0).

Example 3: If one person's great grandparent (great + grand = 2) is a second person's great-great-great-great-great grandparent (great + great + great + great + great + grand = 6), then the two are second cousins four times removed. The first person's "number" (2) is the lowest, making them second cousins. The difference between the two numbers is 4 (6 - 2 = 4), which is the degree of removal (generational difference).

DOUBLE COUSINS

Double first cousins arise when two siblings of one family reproduce with two siblings of another family: The resulting children are related to each other through both parents' families. Double first cousins share both sets of grandparents in common and have double the degree of consanguinity than ordinary first cousins. Genetically, they are as related as half-siblings, sharing 25% of their DNA (a coefficient of relationship of 1/4). Their coefficient of co-ancestry is 1/8th or 0.125. While double first cousins have the same coefficient of co-ancestry (1/8) as half-siblings, they do have higher chances of sharing both alleles (1/16 vs. 0) and lower chances of sharing one allele (3/8 vs. 1/2) with each other than half-siblings.

When identical twins reproduce with a pair of siblings, the resulting children are more related than half-siblings but less related than full siblings (they are genetically equivalent to 3/4 siblings) although they are legally double first cousins.

When identical twins reproduce with another set of identical twins (sometimes called quaternary marriage), the resulting children are likewise genetically indistinguishable from full siblings, although they are genealogically double first cousins.

Double cousin marriage is specifically prohibited in the US state of North Carolina (N.C. Gen. Stat. § 51-3). It is permitted in the other 25 states that permit marriage between first cousins.

OTHER TYPES OF COUSINS

When identical twins reproduce with the same person, the resulting children are likewise genetically indistinguishable from full siblings, although they are legally half-siblings and first cousins. When identical twins reproduce with siblings the resulting children are more related than half-siblings but less related than full siblings. When two siblings who are not identical twins reproduce with the same person, the resulting children are likewise more related than half-siblings but less related than full siblings: Both of these scenarios produce 3/4 siblings. Similar situations arise when two half-siblings marry the same person and when identical twins reproduce with two half-siblings. Children of double first cousins are double second cousins to each other. Chart relationships as sentences:

If two first cousin men have children with two first cousin women then these children are double second cousins because they share both sets of great-grandparents on both the maternal and the paternal family trees.
If two female first cousins have children with two male second cousins, these children are maternal second cousins / paternal third cousins.
If two siblings procreate with two second cousins then the resulting children would be paternal first cousins and maternal third cousins, or vice versa.
In-breeding: If male and female third cousins have children, then these children would be siblings / double fourth cousins. This could be construed as incest in some cultures, especially if the third cousins know that they are related. Technically, it is considered inbreeding as geneticists can easily detect a genetic relationship with third cousins.
If male and female second cousins have children with siblings a brother and sister and then these children are first cousins / double third cousins.

HALF COUSINS

Half-siblings share only one parent. For example, if one of John's parents and one of Mary's parents are half-siblings, John and Mary are half-first cousins. The half-sibling of each of their respective parents would be their half-aunt or half-uncle but these terms, although technically specific, are rarely used in practice. While it would not be unusual to hear of another's half-brother, or half-sister, so described, in common usage one would rarely hear of another's half-cousins or half-aunt, so described, and instead hear them described simply as the other's cousin or aunt. Also, children of half-first cousins are half-second cousins to each other and so on because they would share only one common great-grandparent out of eight instead of two, and so on.

ONE-AND-A-HALF-COUSINS

One and a half cousins may be produced when two full siblings have children with two half-siblings. However, if a set of half-siblings has children with another set of half-siblings, the resulting children would be double-half first cousins, and would have the same consanguinity as full first cousins. Furthermore, if a person's half-sibling marries the person's half-sibling from the other parent, assuming they are not step-siblings, then the child of that couple and the child of the half-sibling who is related to both partners in the married couple will likewise be double-half first cousins.

STEP-COUSINS

Step-cousins are either stepchildren of an individual's aunt or uncle, or children of one's step-aunt or uncle. No blood relationship exists between step-cousins, although there does not need to be a blood relationship between cousins, as in the case of one or both of the siblings being adopted. Step first cousins once removed would be the stepchildren of one's first cousins. A step second cousin is the stepchild of one's first cousin once removed.

COUSIN-IN-LAW

A cousin-in-law is the spouse of an individual's cousin, similarly the cousin of an individual's spouse.

COUSIN FROM MOTHER/FATHER SIDE

A person's cousins may be on either their mother's side or their father's side. If one person's mother's sibling is another's parent, then the second person is the first person's cousin on their mother's side. Similarly, if one person's father's sibling is another's parent, then the second person is the first person's cousin on their father's side. In the Chinese kinship system and other kinship systems, the terms for cousins related through only paternal relationships are different.

MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS

The family relationship between two individuals a and b, where Ga and Gb respectively are the number of generations between each individual and their nearest common ancestor, can be calculated by the following (x = min (Ga, Gb) ~ y = Ga − Gb):

If x = 1 and y = 0 then they are siblings (brothers, sisters or brother and sister).
If x = 1 and y = 1 then they are either parent and child or uncle/aunt and nephew/niece.
If x = 1 and y = 2 then they are either grandparent and grandchild or granduncle/grandaunt and grandnephew/grandniece (or great-uncle/great-aunt and great-nephew/great-niece).
If x = 1 and y > 2 then they are either great ... great-grandparent and great ... great-grandchild, with y − 2 greats or great ... great-granduncle/great-grandaunt and great ... great-grandnephew/great-grandniece, with y − 2 greats (or great- ... great-uncle/great- ... great-aunt and great- ... great-nephew/great- ... great-niece, with y − 1 greats).
If x > 1 and y = 0 then they are (x − 1)th cousins. First cousins are usually just called cousins when contrast with more distant relations is not called for.
If x > 1 and y > 0 then they are (x − 1)th cousins y times removed.

If they only share one nearest common ancestor rather than two, then the word "half" is sometimes added at the beginning of the relationship. Granduncle/grandaunt and grandnephew/grandniece are equivalent to great-uncle/great-aunt and great-nephew/great-niece. Both great-uncle and granduncle refer to an uncle of one's father or mother. Neither form is definitively more correct than the other.

The mathematical definition is more elegant if consanguinity is expressed as the ordered pair of natural numbers (x, y) as defined above. In that case, the relationship between parent and child is (1, 1), and the relationship between grandparent and grandchild is (1, 2). The relationship between siblings is (1, 0); and between aunt/uncle and nephew/niece is (1, 1). First cousins are (2, 0). The first number expresses how many generations back the two people's most recent common ancestor is, while the second number expresses the generation difference between the two people.

ALTERNATIVE CANON LAW CHARTS

Canon Law Relationship Chart

Another visual chart used in determining the legal relationship between two people who share a common ancestor is based upon a diamond shape, and is usually referred to as a canon law relationship chart.

This chart is used by placing the "common progenitor" (the person from whom both people are descended) in the top space in the diamond shaped chart, and then following each line down the outside edge of the chart. Upon reaching the final place along the opposing outside edge for each person, the relationship is then determined by following that line inward to the point where the lines intersect. The information contained in the common "intersection" defines the relationship.

For a simple example, if two siblings use the chart to determine their relationship, their common parents are placed in the topmost position and each child is assigned the space below and along the outside of the chart. Then, following the spaces inward, the two would meet in the "brother (sister)" diamond. If their children want to determine their relationship, they would follow the path established by their parents, but descend an additional step below along the outside of the chart (showing that they are grandchildren of the common progenitor); following their respective lines inward, they would come to rest in the space marked "1st cousin." In cases where one side descends the outside of the diamond further than the other side because of additional generations removed from the common progenitor, following the lines inward shows both the cousin rank (1st cousin, 2nd cousin) plus the number of times (generations) "removed."

In the example provided, generations one (child) through ten (8th great-grandchild) from the common progenitor are provided; however the format of the chart can easily be expanded to accommodate any number of generations needed to resolve the question of relationship.

Can you marry your cousin?

2010-12-17T19:55:00.000-05:00

Charles Darwin married his first cousin.
Albert Einstein's parents were first cousins. Then Albert married his own first cousin. Elsa Lowenthal, Einstein's second wife, was his first cousin on his mother's side. In fact, they were also "double cousins." Lowenthal also happened to be Einstein's second cousin on his father's side.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt were fifth cousins, once removed (a chart showing their relationship is available at http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/q-and-a/q6.cfm).
John Adams married his third cousin, Abigail Smith.
John F. Fitzgerald, former mayor of Boston and grandfather of John F. Kennedy, married his second cousin, Mary Josephine Hannon.
Rudy Giuliani, former mayor of New York, married his second cousin once removed, Regina Peruggi.
Samuel F. B. Morse, inventor of the Morse Code, took his first cousin once removed, Sarah Elizabeth Griswold, as his second wife.
Johann Sebastian Bach married his second cousin, Maria Barbara Bach.
Jerry Lee Lewis married his first cousin, who was 13 years old at the time.
Edgar Allan Poe married his cousin Virginia Clemm in Baltimore in 1835. She was 13 years old at the time.
At the age of 21, Queen Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. For the next 20 years, they lived in close harmony and had a family of nine children, many of whom eventually married into the European monarchy.
Princess Mary of Teck (later to become Queen Mary) married her second cousin, once removed, King George V.

The above is an abbreviated list. A much longer list of notable couples who were cousins may be found at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coupled_cousins. Thousands of people marry their first or second cousins every year. One article I read claims that twenty percent of all married couples in the United States are cousins. That reference comes from an article at http://abcnews.go.com/2020/Stossel/story?id=2395516&page=1 that offers no source citations. I am not sure I believe it.

Once you go further apart than second cousins, the issue becomes more difficult. After all, can you name all your third cousins and fourth cousins and those even further away in the family tree? Very few people can do that. There is always a strong possibility that you unknowingly married a distant cousin. The only way to find out is to research both of your family trees. To be sure, all of us are related to each and every other person somewhere back in history. Therefore, you probably married a distant cousin. The difficulty lies in proving it.

In America, marrying your first cousin is legal in 25 states. Some lists claim that 26 states allow cousin marriage. The confusion apparently stems from the laws of North Carolina, where double cousin marriage is specifically prohibited, but marriages amongst "normal" cousins (those who are not double cousins) are allowed. (N.C. Gen. Stat. § 51-3). All first cousin marriages are permitted in the other 24 states.

Six states ban marriage between first cousins once removed, i.e., marrying the son or daughter of your first cousin. No states ban marriages between second cousins. Some states have more "interesting" laws, such as Arizona: first cousins may marry only if both are sixty-five years of age or older. A list of laws in each state may be found at http://www.cousincouples.com/?page=states. Click on the appropriate state in the map to view each state's laws.

No European country prohibits marriage between first cousins. It is also legal throughout Canada and Mexico to marry your first cousin. The U.S. is the only western country with cousin marriage restrictions.

Many people believe that the Bible is a higher authority than the laws of men. In Leviticus, Chapter 18 (KJV), God tells us that we are not to have sexual relations with a long list of relatives, but the word "cousin" is absent from the list. Leviticus does deny marriage to "any close relative," and scholars have long debated whether or not that includes cousins. However, the Bible contains many instances of cousin marriage. For instance, Zelophehad's daughters, Mahlah, Tirzah, Hoglah, Milcah and Noah, married their cousins on their father's side (Numbers 36:1-11). According to that book, the important result was that “their inheritance remained in the tribe of their father’s clan.”

The Catholic Dictionary finds that Christ's parents, Joseph & Mary, were first cousins. Not all Protestants agree. More cousin marriages listed in the Bible may be found at http://www.cousincouples.com/?page=religion.

The most common argument against cousin marriages is the increased risk of inherited diseases and birth defects. Indeed, there is some increased risk although the numbers appear to be small.

Non-related couples have a 2-3% risk of having children with birth defects. Couples who are first cousins double that risk to a 4-6% risk. Second cousins have little, if any, increased chance of having children with birth defects, according to the book "Clinical Genetics Handbook." (Source citation: http://www.cousincouples.com/?page=facts).

Many genetic diseases are caused by recessive genes. To get the disease, you must obtain the bad gene from both parents. The greater the genetic similarity between your parents, the greater your chance of getting two copies of the bad gene.

Charles Darwin, who knew something about genetics, married his first cousin, and they raised exceptional children. All of Darwin's children were healthy, had no known birth defects, and most of them apparently were either geniuses or near geniuses.

An interesting side issue is called pedigree collapse. When two individuals share an ancestor, the number of distinct ancestors of their offspring will be smaller than it could otherwise be. For example, a single individual today has more than 30 generations going back to the High Middle Ages with roughly a billion ancestors, more than the total world population at the time.

NOTE: This is impossible, of course. Nobody has more ancestors than those on the face of the earth. Duplicate ancestors (the same person appearing in multiple places in the family tree) will always appear in every person's ancestry chart if we research and find every ancestor. However, for the moment, let's focus only on the math involved.

A single individual occupies multiple places in the family tree when the parents of an ancestor are cousins (sometimes unbeknownst to themselves). For example, a person with no cousin relationships amongst his or her parents or grandparents has eight great-grandparents. Anyone whose parents were cousins only has six great-grandparents instead of the normal eight. One set of great-grandparents will show up twice in the ancestors chart. Going back to earlier and earlier generations results in a smaller and smaller number of ancestors when compared to the ancestry charts of the offspring of "unrelated" couples. This reduction in the number of ancestors is called pedigree collapse. It collapses the binary tree (two parents, four grandparents, eight great-grandparents, and so on in a binary progression).

Aside from the genetics, the legal issues, and the genealogies involved, social problems also arise. For instance, having a marriage is one thing, but going through a divorce is something else. You can move on from an ex-spouse or ex-lover, but there's no such thing as an ex-cousin. How are your parents and your ex's parents supposed to handle a nasty divorce or a breakup? How can they support their kids without antagonizing their siblings and their siblings' kids? You've wrecked your whole family.

Avoiding one's undesirable mother-in-law is already difficult in a normal marriage. What do you do if she is already “in the family” before marriage?

Each of us has millions of distant cousins. My belief is that most Americans are tenth cousins (or closer) to every other American. Some geneticists believe that everybody on Earth is at least 50th cousin to everybody else. Chances are that you and your spouse were already related before your marriage.

Essential Dates

2010-12-16T17:50:00.000-05:00

As you gather dates of vital events for your ancestors, list them in chronological order and check your work against historical events that occurred during their lifetime. Your list will help you to identify obvious relationship errors as well as point you to sources for further research. And who knows … you just might learn something new!

THE CENTURIES

Go to http://www.historydata.com/chronologies/index.html for chronologies covering the 18th century. Also includes few important events in the 17th and early 19th centuries. They mainly deal with military history and personalities, but there are other items of information to give a little background to the period.

11th 1001-1100
12th 1101-1200
13th 1201-1300
14th 1301-1400
15th 1401-1500
16th 1501-1600
17th 1601-1700
18th 1701-1800
19th 1801-1900
20th 1901-2000
21st 2001-2100

WORLDWIDE EPIDEMICS 1657-1918

1657 Boston -- Measles
1687 Boston -- Measles
1690 New York -- Yellow Fever
1713 Boston -- Measles
1729 Boston -- Measles
1732-1733 Worldwide -- Influenza
1738 S. Carolina -- Smallpox
1739-1740 Boston -- Measles
1746 Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania & S. Carolina -- Smallpox
1759 N. America -- Measles
1761 N. America -- Influenza
1772 N. America -- Measles
1775 N. America -- Unknown [Especially North East]
1775-1776 Worldwide -- Influenza
1783 Dover, Delaware -- Bilious Disorder
1788 New York & Philadelphia -- Measles
1793 Vermont -- “Putrid Fever” & Influenza
1793 Virginia -- Influenza [500 deaths in 5 counties in 4 weeks]
1793 Philadelphia -- Yellow Fever
1793 Harrisburg PA -- Many Unexplained Deaths
1793 Middletown PA -- Many Mysterious Deaths
1794 Philadelphia -- Yellow Fever
1796-1797 Philadelphia -- Yellow Fever
1798 Philadelphia -- Yellow Fever [one of the worst]
1803 New York -- Yellow Fever
1820-1823 Nationwide -- “Fever” [Started at Schuylkill River & Spread]
1831-1832 Nationwide -- Asiatic Cholera [Brought in by English immigrants]
1832 New York & Other Major Cities -- Cholera
1833 Columbus, OH -- Cholera
1833-1834 Kentucky -- Cholera
1834 New York City NY -- Cholera
1837 Philadelphia -- Typhus
1841 Nationwide -- Yellow Fever [Especially Severe in the South]
1847 New Orleans -- Yellow Fever
1847-1848 Worldwide -- Influenza
1848-1849 North America -- Cholera
1849 New York -- Cholera
1850 Nationwide -- Yellow Fever
1850-1851 North America Influenza
1851 Coles County IL, The Great Plains & Missouri -- Cholera
1852 Nationwide -- Yellow Fever [8,000 deaths in New Orleans that summer]
1855 Nationwide -- Yellow Fever
1857-1859 Worldwide -- Influenza [One of the largest epidemics]
1860-1861 Pennsylvania -- Smallpox

1861-1865 “Throughout the Civil War, disease as well as violence threatened civilians, who perished from the same illnesses that produced the preponderance of military deaths. The Civil War generated significant movements of peoples that served as deadly disease vectors. Contagions and epidemics that flourished in army camps spread to surrounding populations. Citizens of Danville, VA, for example, were certain that their debilitating “fevers” originated in the prisoner-of-war hospital located there. Philadelphia reported a smallpox epidemic that seemed closely connected to the numbers of soldiers stationed in the city who had succumbed to the disease. In the fall of 1862, nearly 500 cases of yellow fever and malaria appeared in Wilmington, NC, in part, local physicians believed, because the construction of army breastworks had increased the number of stagnant water around the city. No statistics or systematic records document the impact of war-engendered disease on noncombatant populations, but citizens, especially in the South, had few doubts about its effects.” [Ref. This Republic of Suffering … Death and the American War by Drew Gilpin Faust.]

1865-1873 Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Baltimore, Memphis & Washington DC -- A series of recurring epidemics of Smallpox, Cholera, Typhus, Typhoid, Scarlet Fever, Yellow Fever & Influenza
1873-1875 North America & Europe -- Influenza
1878 New Orleans -- Yellow Fever [Last Great Epidemic]
1885 Plymouth, PA -- Typhoid
1886 Jacksonville FL -- Yellow Fever
1918 Worldwide -- Influenza or Spanish Flu [More people were hospitalized in WW1 camps from this epidemic than wounds. US Army training camps became death camps, with 80% death rate in some camps.]

WAR

For a complete list of wars from 1800-present go to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wars_1800â€“1899:

1812-1815 The War of 1812
1835-1836 Texas Revolution
1836-1839 War of the Confederation
1837-1838 Patriot War
1857-1858 Utah War
1861-1865 American Civil War
1866-1868 Red Cloud’s War
1879-1884 War of the Pacific
1914-1918 WWI
1939-1945 WWII
1959-1975 Vietnam War
1960 Bay of Pigs Invasion
1983 U.S. Invasion of Grenada
1989-1990 U.S. Invasion of Panama
1990-1991 Gulf War
1998 U.S. Bombing of Iraq
2003-Pres Iraq War

GREAT DEPRESSION 1929-1941

1929 The stock market crashes.
1930 More than 3.2 million people are unemployed.
1931 Food riots begin to break out in parts of the U.S. Resentment of “foreign” workers increases along with unemployment rolls. New York’s Bank of the United States collapses.
1932 The Reconstruction Finance Corporation is authorized to lend needy states sums from the national Treasury. The money is to target relief and public works projects.
1933 FDR announces a four-day bank holiday to begin on Monday, March 6. During that time, FDR promises Congress will work on coming up with a plan to save the failing banking industry. By March 9, Congress passes the Emergency Banking Act of 1933. By month’s end, three-quarters of the nation’s closed banks are back in business. In April, FDR orders the nation off of the gold standard.

Work programs established in 1933: The Civilian Conservation Corps. Designed as a relief and employment program for young men between 17-27; The Tennessee Valley Authority is created and builds dams, produces and sells fertilizer, reforests the Tennessee Valley area and develops recreational lands; The Civil Works Administration is devised as a wide scale program that can employ up to 4 million people by building bridges, schools, hospitals, airports, parks and playgrounds.

1934 In May a three-day dust storm blows an estimated 350 million tons of soil off the terrain of the West and Southwest and deposits it as far east as New York and Boston. Some East Coast cities are forced to ignite street lamps during the day to see through the blowing dust!
1935 The Works Progress Administration (in 1939 changed to Works Projects Administration) is created to employ more than 8.5 million individuals in 3,000 counties across the nation. Individuals, drawing a salary of only $41.57 a month, improve or create highways, roads, bridges and airports. The WPA also puts thousands of artists (writers, painters, theater directors and sculptors) to work on various projects.

Other work programs established in 1935: The National Youth Administration is set up to address the needs of young men and women and works on two levels: a student work program [which provides students with odd jobs that pain them enough to stay in school] and an out-of-school program [to set young people up with various jobs ranging from house painting to cleaning local parks … eventually came to include vocational training].

1936 The Social Security System Act is signed into law by FDR. Among the most controversial stipulations of the act is that Social Security would be financed through a payroll tax. Called “one of the major turning points of American history”, no longer could “rugged individualism convincingly insist that government, though obliged to provide a climate favorable for the growth of business profits, had no responsibility whatever for the welfare of the human beings who did the work from which the profit was reaped.”
1937 The slow economic recovery made possible by the New Deal programs suffers a setback as unemployment rises. FDRs detractors call it the start of the “Roosevelt Recession”.
1938 FDR asks Congress to authorize 3.75 billion in federal spending to stimulate the sagging economy. While economic indicators respond favorably over the next few months, unemployment remains high and is predicted to stay that way for some time.
1941 Japan bombs Pearl Harbor in December and the United States enters the war in the Pacific and Europe. The war effort jump-starts U.S. industry and effectively ends the Great Depression.

GEDCOM Basics

2010-12-15T11:38:00.000-05:00

Found at About.com

If you've spent much time on the web researching your family tree, then it is likely that you've either downloaded a GEDCOM file from the internet or received one from a fellow researcher via email or disk. So now you have a family tree which may contain vital clues to your ancestors and your computer can't seem to open it. What to do?

HOW TO OPEN & READ A GEDCOM FILE

Is it really a GEDCOM? Begin by ensuring that the file you want to open is truly a GEDCOM file, and not a family tree file created in some proprietary format by a genealogy software program. A file is in GEDCOM format when it ends in the extension .ged. If the file ends with the extension .zip then it has been zipped (compressed) and needs to be unzipped first. See Handling Zipped Files.
Save the GEDCOM File to your computer. Whether you are downloading the file from the Internet or opening it as an email attachment, the first thing you should do is save the file to a folder on your hard drive. If you're saving it from email you may want to scan it for viruses first before saving to your hard drive (see Step 3).
Scan the GEDCOM for viruses. Once you have the file saved to your computer hard drive, it is time to scan it for viruses using your antivirus software program. Even if you know the person who sent you the GEDCOM file, it is better to be safe than sorry.
Make a backup of your existing genealogy database. If you have a family tree file on your computer you should always make sure you have a recent backup before opening a new GEDCOM file. This will allow you to revert to your original file in case something goes wrong when you're opening/importing the GEDCOM file.
Open the GEDCOM file with your genealogy software. Do you have a genealogy software program? If so, then begin your family tree program and close any open family tree project. Then follow the program's instructions for opening/importing a GEDCOM file. Be sure to look at the GEDCOM file by itself first, rather than opening or merging it directly into your own family tree database. It is much harder to figure out how to remove unwanted people, than it is to add new people later after you have reviewed the new GEDCOM file.

GENERIC INSTRUCTIONS FOR OPENING A GEDCOM FILE
(This works for most family tree software programs. See your program's help file for more specific instructions.)

Launch your family tree program and close any open genealogy files.
In the top-left hand corner of your screen, click the File menu.
Select either Open, Import or Import GEDCOM.
If .ged is not already highlighted in the "file type" box, then scroll down and select GEDCOM or .ged.
Browse to the location on your computer where you save your GEDCOM files and select the file that you want to open.The program will create a new genealogy database containing the information from the GEDCOM. Enter a filename for this new database, making sure that is one that you can distinguish from your own files. Example: 'powellgedcom'Click Save or Import.The program may then ask you to make a few choices regarding the import of your GEDCOM file. Just follow the directions. If you're not sure what to select, then just stick with the default options.Click OK.A confirmation box may appear stating that your import was successful.You should now be able to read the GEDCOM file in your genealogy software program as a regular family tree file.

OTHER WAYS TO OPEN A GEDCOM FILE

If you don't have a genealogy software program you can still open and read GEDCOM files. Many free and shareware programs are available which allow you to easily open and view GEDCOM files.

HOW TO CREATE & SHARE A GEDCOM FILE

Do you want to share your family tree file with friends, family, or fellow researchers? Unless they use the same genealogy software program as you they will not be able to open and read your family file unless you send it to them in GEDCOM format. The same goes for most online pedigree databases which only accept family tree submissions in GEDCOM format. Learning to save your family tree as a GEDCOM file will make it much easier to share your family tree and connect with fellow researchers.

HOW TO SAVE YOUR FAMILY TREE AS A GEDCOM FILE

All major family tree software programs support the creation of GEDCOM files. Creating a GEDCOM file does not overwrite you existing data or change your existing file in any way. Instead, a new file is generated by a process known as "exporting." Exporting a GEDCOM file is easy to do with any family tree software by following the basic instructions below. You can also find more detailed instructions in your genealogy software's manual or help system. You should also be sure to remove private information such as birth dates and social security numbers for people in your family tree who are still living in order to protect their privacy.

GENERIC INSTRUCTIONS FOR CREATING A GEDCOM FILE

(This works for most family tree software programs.)

Launch your family tree program and open your genealogy file.
In the top-left hand corner of your screen, click the File menu.
Select either Export or Save as...
Change the Save As Type or Destination drop-down box to GEDCOM or .GED.
Select the location where you'd like to save your file (make sure it's one you can easily remember)
Enter a filename such as 'smithfamilytree' (the program will automatically add the .ged extension)
Click Save or Export.
Some type of confirmation box will appear stating that your export has succeeded.
Click OK. (If your genealogy software program does not have the ability to protect the privacy of living individuals, then try a GEDCOM privatizing programs to filter the details of living people from your original GEDCOM file.) Your file is now ready to share with others (see below).

HOW TO SHARE A GEDCOM FILE

Once you have created a GEDCOM file you can now easily share it with others via email, floppy disk/CD, or the Internet.

To share your GEDCOM file via email you will need to send it as an attachment to your email. Be sure to include a short note in your email telling the recipient what to expect in the attachment so that they won't delete it as a potential virus-laden attachment. You may also want to attach brief instructions on how to open the file or point them to my instructions on How to Open a GEDCOM File.
To share your GEDCOM file via snail mail you will need to save it to a floppy disk or burn it onto a CD.
You can also share your GEDCOM file with others online by uploading to one of the many pedigree databases which exist on the web. The best of these promise not to sell your information for profit and allow for easy searching for matches against the names in your family tree.

Genealogical Numbering Systems

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The first Ahnentafel, published by Michaël Eytzinger in Thesaurus principum hac aetate in Europa viventium Cologne: 1590, pp. 146-147, in which Eytzinger first illustrates his new functional theory of numeration of ancestors; this schema showing Henry III of France as n° 1, de cujus, with his ancestors in five generations.

Several genealogical numbering systems have been widely adopted for presenting family trees and pedigree charts in text format. Among the most popular numbering systems are: Ahnentafel (Sosa-Stradonitz Method), and the Register, NGSQ, Henry, d'Aboville, Meurgey de Tupigny, and de Villiers/Pama Systems.

AHNENTAFEL

Also known as the Eytzinger Method, Sosa Method and Sosa-Stradonitz Method, the Ahnentafel allows for the numbering of ancestors beginning with a descendant. This system allows one to derive an ancestor's number without compiling the list and allows one to derive an ancestor's relationship based on their number.

The first Ahnentafel, published by Michaël Eytzinger in Thesaurus principum hac aetate in Europa viventium Cologne: 1590, pp. 146-147, in which Eytzinger first illustrates his new functional theory of numeration of ancestors; this schema showing Henry III of France as n° 1, de cujus, with his ancestors in five generations.

The number of a person's father is the double of their own number, and the number of a person's mother is the double of their own, plus one. For instance, if the number of John Smith is 10, his father is 20, and his mother is 21. The first 15 numbers, identifying individuals in 4 generations, are as follows:

(First Generation)
1 Subject
(Second Generation)
2 Father
3 Mother
(Third Generation)
4 Father's father
5 Father's mother
6 Mother's father
7 Mother's mother
(Fourth Generation)
8 Father's father's father
9 Father's father's mother
10 Father's mother's father
11 Father's mother's mother
12 Mother's father's father
13 Mother's father's mother
14 Mother's mother's father
15 Mother's mother's mother

SURNAME METHODS

Genealogical writers sometimes choose to present ancestral lines by carrying back individuals with their spouses or single families generation by generation. The siblings of the individual or individuals studied may or may not be named for each family. This method is most popular in simplified single surname studies. However, allied surnames of major family branches may be carried back as well. In general, numbers are assigned only to the primary individual studied in each generation.

DESCENDING NUMBERING & REGISTER SYSTEMS

The Register System uses both common numerals (1, 2, 3, 4) and Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv). This system is organized by generation, i.e., generations are grouped separately. It was created in 1870 for use in the New England Historic and Genealogical Register published by the New England Historic Genealogical Society based in Boston, Massachusetts.

Register Style, of which the numbering system is part, is one of two major styles used in the U.S. for compiling descending genealogies (the other being the NGSQ System.).

(First Generation)
1 Progenitor
2 i Child
ii Child (no progeny)
iii Child (no progeny)
3 iv Child
(Second Generation)
2 Child
i Grandchild (no progeny)
ii Grandchild (no progeny)
3 Child
4 i Grandchild
(Third Generation)
4 Grandchild
5 i Great-grandchild
ii Great-grandchild (no progeny)
6 iii Great-grandchild
7 iv Great-grandchild

NGSQ SYSTEM

The NGSQ System gets its name from the National Genealogical Society Quarterly (published by the National Genealogical Society of Arlington, VA) which uses this method in its articles. It is sometimes called the "Record System" or the "Modified Register System" because it derives from the Register System. The most significant difference between the NGSQ and the Register Systems is in the method of numbering for children who are not carried forward into future generations: The NGSQ System assigns a number to every child, whether or not that child is known to have progeny, and the Register System does not. Other differences between the two systems are mostly stylistic.

(First Generation)
1 Progenitor
+ 2 i Child
3 ii Child (no progeny)
4 iii Child (no progeny)
+ 5 iv Child
(Second Generation)
2 Child
6 i Grandchild (no progeny)
7 ii Grandchild (no progeny)
5 Child
+ 8 i Grandchild
(Third Generation)
8 Grandchild
+ 9 i Great-grandchild
10 ii Great-grandchild (no progeny)
+ 11 iii Great-grandchild
+ 12 iv Great-grandchild

HENRY SYSTEM

The Henry System is a descending system created by Reginald Buchanan Henry for a genealogy of the families of the presidents of the United States that he wrote in 1935. It can be organized either by generation or not. The system begins with 1. The oldest child becomes 11, the next child is 12, and so on. The oldest child of 11 is 111, the next 112, and so on. The system allows one to derive an ancestor's relationship based on their number. For example, 621 is the first child of 62, who is the second child of 6, who is the sixth child of 1.

In the Henry System, when there are more than nine children, X is used for the 10th child, A is used for the 11th child, B is used for the 12th child, and so on. In the Modified Henry System, when there are more than nine children, numbers greater than nine are placed in parentheses.

Henry Modified Henry
1. Progenitor 1. Progenitor
11. Child 11. Child
111. Grandchild 111. Grandchild
1111. Great-grandchild 1111. Great-grandchild
1112. Great-grandchild 1112. Great-grandchild
112. Grandchild 112. Grandchild
12. Child 12. Child
121. Grandchild 121. Grandchild
1211. Great-grandchild 1211. Great-grandchild
1212. Great-grandchild 1212. Great-grandchild
122. Grandchild 122. Grandchild
1221. Great-grandchild 1221. Great-grandchild
123. Grandchild 123. Grandchild
124. Grandchild 124. Grandchild
125. Grandchild 125. Grandchild
126. Grandchild 126. Grandchild
127. Grandchild 127. Grandchild
128. Grandchild 128. Grandchild
129. Grandchild 129. Grandchild
12X. Grandchild 12(10). Grandchild

D'ABOVILLE SYSTEM

The d'Aboville System is a descending numbering method developed by Jacques d'Aboville in 1940. Very similar to the Henry System, widely used in France, it can be organized either by generation or not. It differs from the Henry System in that periods are used to separate the generations and no changes in numbering are needed for families with more than nine children. For example:

1 Progenitor
1.1 Child
1.1.1 Grandchild
1.1.1.1 Great-grandchild
1.1.1.2 Great-grandchild
1.1.2 Grandchild
1.2 Child
1.2.1 Grandchild
1.2.1.1 Great-grandchild
1.2.1.2 Great-grandchild
1.2.2 Grandchild
1.2.2.1 Great-grandchild
1.2.3 Grandchild
1.2.4 Grandchild
1.2.5 Grandchild
1.2.6 Grandchild
1.2.7 Grandchild
1.2.8 Grandchild
1.2.9 Grandchild
1.2.10 Grandchild

MEUGERY DE TUPIGNY SYSTEM

The Meurgey de Tupigny System is a simple numbering method used for single surname studies and hereditary nobility line studies developed by Jacques Meurgey de Tupigny of the National Archives of France, published in 1953.

Each generation is identified by a Roman numeral (I, II, III, etc.), and each child and cousin in the same generation carrying the same surname is identified by an Arabic numeral. The numbering system usually appears on or in conjunction with a pedigree chart. Example:

I Progenitor
II-1 Child
III-1 Grandchild
IV-1 Great-grandchild
IV-2 Great-grandchild
III-2 Grandchild
III-3 Grandchild
III-4 Grandchild
II-2 Child
III-5 Grandchild
IV-3 Great-grandchild
IV-4 Great-grandchild
IV-5 Great-grandchild
III-6 Grandchild

DE VILLIERS/PAMA SYSTEM

The de Villiers/Pama System gives letters to generations, and then numbers children in birth order. For example:

a Progenitor
b1 Child
c1 Grandchild
d1 Great-grandchild
d2 Great-grandchild
c2 Grandchild
c3 Grandchild
b2 Child
c1 Grandchild
d1 Great-grandchild
d2 Great-grandchild
d3 Great-grandchild
c2 Grandchild
c3 Grandchild

In this system, b2.c3 is the third child of the second child,[8] and is one of the progenitor's grandchildren. The de Villiers/Pama system is the standard for genealogical works in South Africa. It was developed in the 19th century by Christoffel Coetzee de Villiers and used in his three volume Geslachtregister der Oude Kaapsche Familien (Genealogies of Old Cape Families). The system was refined by Dr. Cornelis (Cor) Pama, one of the founding members of the Genealogical Society of South Africa.

Common Abbreviations

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Using the abbreviations below, genealogical relationships may be distinguished by single or compound relationships, such as BC for a brother's children, MBD for a mother's brother's daughter, and so forth.

KINSHIP TERMINOLOGY

B = Brother
C = Child(ren)
D = Daughter
F = Father
GC = Grandchild(ren)
GP = Grandparent(s)
P = Parent
S = Son
Z = Sister
W = Wife
H = Husband
SP = Spouse
LA = In-law
SI = Siblings
M = Mother
(m.s.) = male speaking
(f.s.) = female speaking

OFTEN FOUND IN OBITUARIES

a.a.s. Died in the year of his/her (anno aetitis) (86 y/o or died in the year 86 of his/her life)
abt. About
a.k.a. Also known as
b. Born
consort Spouse (consort of)
bet. Between
d. Died
d.s.p. Died without issue (decessit sine prole ligitima)
d.s.p.l. Died without legitimate issue (decessit sine prole mascula supesita
d.s.p.m.s. Died without surviving male issue (decessit sine prole mascula supersita)
d.s.p.s. Died without surviving issue (decessit sine prole supersita)
d.unm Died unmarried
d.v.p. Died in the lifetime of his father (decessit vita patris)
d.v.m. Died in the lifetime of his mother (decessit vita matris)
d.y. Died young
Et al And others (et alia)
f/o Father of
Inst Present month (instans)
Liber Book or volume
m. Married
m/o Mother of
Nepos Grandson
nka Now known as
nm Never married
Nunc (Nuncapative will) an oral will, written by a witness
Ob He/she died (obit)
Relict Widow or widower (relicta/relictus)
Sic So or thus, exact copy as written
s/o Son of
Testes Witnesses
Ult Late (ultimo)
Ux or Vs Wife (uxor)
Viz Namely (videlicet)
w/o Wife of

LINKS ~ State, Regional & National Sites

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Report Broken Links to GreatOaksGrow@gmail.com.

ALABAMA

http://www.archives.state.al.us/ – Alabama Civil War soldiers along with online files of WWI servicemen, photos and 1867 voter rolls.

www.rootsweb.com/~alcwroot – Includes tips on tracing your Civil War ancestors.

ALASKA

http://www.akgenweb.org/ – Alaska GenWeb Project

ARIZONA

http://azsgs.org/ – Includes a surname registry.

http://genealogy.az.gov/ – Indexes of births that occurred at least 75 years ago and deaths that occurred at least 50 years ago. Then simply click to download PDF copies of the original records.

ARKANSAS

http://www.ark-ives.com/ – Searchable photo, newspaper, county records and Confederate home-records database.

http://www.territorialkansasonline.org/ – Personal letters, diaries, photos and maps that bring to life the settling of Kansas and its bloody debate over slavery.

CALIFORNIA

http://www.oac.cdlib.org/ – Encompasses more than 120,000 images; 50,000 pages of documents, letters and oral histories; and 8,000 guides to collections from California museums, historical societies and archives.

www.cagenweb.com/cpl – California Pioneer Project. List of settlers who were born in or migrated to California before 1880.

COLORADO

http://history.denverlibrary.org/research/genealogy.html – Indexes to pioneers, the 1887 Denver city directory and military records (including Nebraska Civil War records).

CONNECTICUT

www.rootsweb.com/~usgenweb/ct/ctfiles.htm – Connecticut GenWeb Project.

DELAWARE

www.rootsweb.com/~usgenweb/de/index.htm – Delaware GenWeb Project.

www.state.de.us/sos/dpa – Naturalization and probate records, orphans-court cases, slave papers & Civil War records.

FLORIDA

http://www.civilwarflorida.com/ – Master Soldier Index and descendant registry.

www.floridamemory.com/collections – Includes digitized Spanish land grants, 13,000 Confederate pension applications and WWI service cards..

GEORGIA

www.sos.state.ga.us/archives – Links to historical postcards, legislative documents and the Vanishing Georgia database of nearly 20,000 photos.

http://docuweb.gsu.edu/CivilWar.htm – Images of the state archives’ Confederate pension-record collection are arranged by county. Search by veteran’s or widow’s name to view the pension file page by page and download PDF versions for printing.

http://dlg.galileo.usg.edu/?Welcome – Digitized books manuscripts, photographs, newspapers and other material.

HAWAII

www.raogk.com/hawaii.htm – Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness, Hawaii

IDAHO

www.rootsweb.com/~idgenweb – Includes archives, message boards and queries.

ILLINOIS

www.ilsos.net/departments/archives/databases.html – Statewide indexes cover marriages from 1763-1900 and deaths from 1916-1950. Military databases contain names of Illinois veterans of the War of 1812, Winnebago War, Black Hawk War, Mexican War, Civil War and the Spanish-American War. Indexes to county birth, naturalization and probate records round out the collection.

INDIANA

www.lib.ipfw.edu/1069.0.html – The Indiana Government Resource List is a selected list of links to information by and about Indiana. The resources included supplement IN.gov, the information portal to the government of the State of Indiana and to STATS Indiana, the statistical resource center provided by the Indiana University Business Research Center.

IOWA

www.kinyon.com/iowa – County histories and links to online census transcriptions.

KANSAS

KENTUCKY

http://history.ky.gov/ – Compilation of Kentucky cemetery records, which includes nearly 200,000 gravestone records from 3,000-plus cemeteries.

http://ukcc.uky.edu/vitalrec – Hosted by the University of Kentucky, database of almost 2.7 million deaths from 1911-1992 and indexes to marriages & divorces from 1973-1993.

LOUISIANA

http://www.acadian-cajun.com/ – Acadian & Cajun generlogy & history.

http://www.sos.louisiana.gov/ – Database of more than 49,000 pension applications.

MAINE

https://www.maine.gov/online/archives – Archival database at www.informe.org/sos_archives will tell you whether your Maine ancestors’ records are available in the state archives or other state agencies.

MARYLAND

http://www.mdarchives.state.md.us/ – Several searchable databases.

http://www.marylandgenealogy.com/ – Articles on history and genealogy plus online resources.

MASSACHUSETTS

www.sec.state.ma.us/arc/arcidx.htm – Database of birth and death indexes (1841-1910) searchable by first and last names, year and town or city. Each entry provides the location of the original certificate. Ongoing project to transcribe more than 1 million records of immigrants who arrived on Boston shores between 1848-1891.

http://fitzware.com/ – Database of more than 150,000 soldiers, sailors and Marines who served in Massachusetts regiments during the Civil War. 64 regimental histories.

http://genealogylinks.net/usa/massachusetts – Links to marriage records, pioneer and slave owner indexes and vital records.

http://www.mayflowerhistory.com/ – Mayflower passengers.

MICHIGAN

www.mdch.state.mi.us/pha/osr/gendisx/index.htm – Complete transcriptions of 170,000 death records covering 1867-1884. Records include name, date and place of death, age, marital status, cause of death, occupation and parents’ names and residences.

www.hal.state.mi.us/cemeteries – Directory of 3,700 Michigan cemeteries. Click the links to find transcriptions in books, microfilms and online.

MINNESOTA

www.mnhs.org/genealogy – Indexes to deaths (1904-2001), births (1900-1934), veterans’ graves and microfilmed newspapers.

MISSISSIPPI

MISSOURI

www.sos.mo.gov/archives/resources/bdrecords.asp – 185,000 pre-1910 births and deaths, a death certificate database (1910-1956), naturalization records (1816-1955), court papers and land patents. Missouri military records from the War of 1812 through WWI, many linked to images of the originals.

MONTANA

www.rootsweb.com/~mtgenweb – Photo archives, online newspapers and queries.

NEBRASKA

http://idreamof.com/school/ne.html – School records dating from 1871.

NEVADA

NEW HAMPSHIRE

NEW JERSEY

NEW MEXICO

www.rootsweb.com/~nma – 2 million record transcriptions, tombstone photographs and histories of the state’s ghost towns.

http://landing.trafficz.com/index.php?domain=newmexicogenealogy.org – Surname and query pages and cemetery and Latino research links.

NEW YORK & LONG ISLAND

www.italiangen.org/nycdeath.stm – Online index to more than 2.7 million New York City death certificates. So far, index covers 1891-1936 with coverage to 1948 in the works.

http://longislandgenealogy.com/

NORTH CAROLINA

http://statelibrary.dcr.state.nc.us/iss/gr/genealog.htm – Genealogical Research in North Carolina

NORTH DAKOTA

http://library.ndsu.edu/repository/ – 1885 Dakota Territory census, naturalization records and an index to more than 59,000 names in obituaries published in the Fargo Forum newspaper. North Dakota naturalization records index.

OHIO

http://www.cpl.org/ – Cleveland obituaries dating from the mid-1800s to 1975.

www.ohiohistory.org/resource/archlib – Index to records from the state’s boys and girls industrial schools (1858-1915). Joins the Ohio Death Certificate Index at www.ohiohistory.org/dindex (1913-1944) and the roster of Ohioans in the War of 1812..

OKLAHOMA

www.oklaosf.state.ok.us/?c=&&sc=95 – State history.

OREGON

http://arcweb.sos.state.or.us/banners/genealogy.htm– Portland birth and death indexes.

PENNSYLVANIA

www.digitalarchives.state.pa.us/archive.asp – Databases include the Revolutionary War Military Abstract Card File, Militia Officers Index Cards (1775-1800), Civil War Veterans Card File and WWI Service Medal Application Cards.

RHODE ISLAND

www.rootsweb.com/~rigenweb – Search database for the Historical Cemeteries Transcription Project.

SOUTH CAROLINA

SOUTH DAKOTA

www.state.sd.us/doh/VitalRec/birthrecords – More than 99,000 birth records for people born at least 100 years ago.

TENNESSEE

http://members.tripod.com/~rosters/index-8.html – Transcriptions of Tennessee marriages arranged by county.

TEXAS

http://www.tshaonline.org/ – Search 23,000 articles on Texas people, places and history.

www.tsl.state.tx.us/arc – Databases of 54,634 Confederate pension applications (1899-1975), Texas Adjutant General Service Records (1836-1935), the Index to Republic Claims (1835-1846) and more.

http://lsjunction.com/ – Searchable database of more than 10,000 early Texans beginning in 1835.

UTAH

www.xmission.com/~nelsonb/pioneer.htm – Guide to tracing Mormons traveling to Utah from 1847-1868.

www.xmission.com/~nelsonb/census_search.htm – These 1850-1880 enumerations of Utah Territory also covered various parts of adjacent states.

http://historyresearch.utah.gov/indexes/ – Index to more than 250,000 1905-1954 death certificates with links to digital images of the originals. Various county and court records searchable, including some births, divorces and probate files.

VERMONT

http://vermontcivilwar.com/ – Everything from artillery units to women in the war.

VIRGINIA

http://www.lva.lib.va.us/ – 80-plus databases, indexes and finding aids. Indexes to marriage records dating from 1630 and death records from 1853-1896. Military indexes cover Revolutionary War bounty land warrants, War of 1812 pay and muster rolls and Confederate pension rolls. Indexes to land patents and grants from 1623-1992. Images from family bibles.

WASHINGTON

http://www.digitalarchives.wa.gov/ – Includes Washington state’s 1910 census and an image-linked index to pre-1930 marriage records.

http://search.tpl.lib.wa.us/obits – More than 367,000 individual index records of obituaries published in the Tacoma news Tribune/Morning News Tribune from 1930 on.

WEST VIRGINIA

WISCONSIN

www.wisconsinhistory.org/genealogy – More than 150,000 obituaries and biographical sketches; over 1 million births, 40,000 deaths and 1 million marriages in the pre-1907 Vital Records Index; 1,000 articles, memoirs, interview and other primary sources covering early Wisconsin history; and Civil War rosters.

http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/WI/ – Public documents, local histories, land survey records and photos and maps of Milwaukee neighborhoods beginning in 1885.

WYOMING

www.rootsweb.com/~wygenweb – Queries, archives, biographies and histories.

~~~~~

NEW ENGLAND

http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~rbrown/ – Comprehensive site of vital records, town histories & links.

MULTIPLE STATES

http://www.vitalsearch-worldwide.com/ – Massive database indexes more than 70 million vital records from seven states: California births (1905-1995), marriages (1949-1986) and deaths (1905-2000); Florida deaths (1877-1916 and 1999-2000); Georgia marriages (1998); Kentucky births (1911-2001), marriages (1973-2001) and deaths (1900-2001); Oregon marriages (1999-2001) and deaths (1951-1960 and 1999-2001); Texas births (1926-1997), marriages (1967-2000), divorces (1968-1998) and deaths (1956-1959 and 1964-2000); and Washington deaths (1970-1974). More records are coming.

www.publicrecordfinder.com/vitalrecrds.html – Links to free web resources. Bulk of its vital-statistics-listings cover California, Florida and Texas with a handful of other states.

NATIONAL

http://www.usgenweb.com/ – One of the most valuable sites for United States researchers. There’s a site for each U.S. county with links to archives, queries & county histories.

http://vitalrec.com/usmap.html – State-by-state guide that outlines how to order vital records.

LINKS ~ Topic-Specific Sites

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AFRICAN-AMERICAN

http://ccharity.com/ – Link-filled site includes related articles and databases.

http://freedmensbureau.com/ – Excellent resource for researching slave ancestors. Includes records on marriages, crimes and labor, as well as land abandoned by Confederate owners after the war.

BIBLE RECORDS

http://www.biblerecords.com/ – Family bibles that have been rescued and put online. Over 700 bibles representing more than 2,000 surnames. Search the collection or browse by Bible or surname.

CEMETERIES & FUNERAL HOMES

http://www.ancestorsatrest.com/ – Photos and transcriptions of coffin plates, funeral cards, obituaries, wills and other death records. Click on the Articles link for information about gravestone symbols and causes of death in the olden days.

http://www.findagrave.com/ – One of the best and biggest cemetery sites. Lets you search 6.3 records by name, location or “claim to fame”. You can add burial records and upload photos.

http://www.interment.net/ – Puts you online with more than 3.2 million records from nearly 7,000 cemeteries worldwide. Browse transcriptions by region and check out special collections of veterans cemeteries.

http://www.obitcentral.com/ – Thousands of links to online obituaries; cemetery inscriptions; birth, marriage and death notices; and divorce records arranged by state and county. Also a collection of search engines that cover only obituaries.

CENSUS

http://www.census-online.com/ – Most complete and easy-to-use guide to online census pages containing more than 36,000 links. Before buying a census subscription, check here for free transcriptions.

CITY DIRECTORIES

http://www.olddirectorysearch.com/ – Growing collection of digitized city directory pages. Based on the fact that much of the 1890 U.S. Census was destroyed by fire, this site could mean a breakthrough if your ancestor was in the right place at the right time!

IMMIGRATION

http://www.castlegarden.org/ – Castle Garden was America’s first official immigration center between 1830-1892. Records dating back to 1820 await transcribing.

http://www.ellisisland.org/ – Immigrants who passed through Ellis Island and the Port of New York between 1892-1924. Once you’ve identified the right record in this vast database, you can view the digitized actual manifests and an image of the ship your ancestor traveled on.

http://welcome.hamburg.de/ – Covers emigrants via Hamburg, an important port of departure for many European nationalities. Digitized manifests cover only 1890 and 1891 so far, but eventually the site plans to cover 1850-1934. Basic searches are free, but there is a charge for detailed results.

http://www.theshiplist.com/ – Most comprehensive site for locating immiration-related materials. Volunteers decipher and transcribe ships’ passenger lists. Excellent search tutorial. Resources include ship images, maritime routes, maps and links to other immigration sites. Besides links to passenger lists, this site offers a virtual education in 19th century shipping from photos of ports and vessels to period narratives.

LAND RECORDS

http://www.glorecords.blm.gov/ – More than 2 million federal land-title records for Eastern public-land states (generally Eastern States including the original 13 colonies) issued between 1820-1908. Land titles issued between 1908 and the mid-1960s, including those in Western states now being added. You may also be able to view a digitized image of your ancestor’s land patent.

http://www.land-records.com/ – You won’t find actual records here, but each state gets an introduction and complete courthouse listing.

MILITARY & VETERANS

http://www.carlisle.army.mil/ahec/ – Noted for its photo archive, this institute puts pictures of the military past, including a Civil War Photo Database, at your fingertips.

http://www.civilwardata.com/ – $$$ Database created to centralize information on every Civil War soldier. Includes regimental histories, Rolls of Honor and the 1890 census of Civil War veterans and widows.

http://gravelocator.cem.va.gov/j2ee/servlet/NGL_v1 – Burial locations of veterans and their dependents in Department of Veterans Affairs national cemeteries, state veterans cemeteries and other Department of Interior and military burial places. Entries from national cemeteries go back as far as the Civil War.

www.itd.nps.gov/cwss – Civil War soldiers and sailors system. Database has information on 5.4 million soldiers who served on both sides in the Civil War. Includes regimental histories, descriptions of 384 significant battles, prison-of-war records and cemetery records.

http://www.royalprovincial.com/ – Visit this site if you have ancestors who remained loyal to the British Crown during the Revolutionary War. Includes an index to Loyalist muster rolls, regimental documents, land petitions and post-war settlement documents.

DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

http://www.dar.org/ – Home of the long-standing national organization. Offers a free lookup service in the DAR’s Patriot Index of Revolutionary War soldiers and others who served the cause of liberty. Fill out a simple online request form and you’ll get a quick email answer.

www.dar.org/dar/darnet/grc/grc.cfm – Nearly 16 million names of records submitted to the DAR’s Genealogical Records Committee. If you find your ancestor, you can request copies using the DAR’s Search Service.

NATIVE AMERICAN

www.hanksville.org/NAresources – Index of Native American Resources

www.distantcousin.com/Links/Ethnic/Native – Includes links to personal home pages and tribal & cultural sites.

www.archives.gov/research/arc/index.html Some major Native American records including the Indian censuses from 1885 through 1940 and the Dawes Rolls, applications for enrollment in the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chicasaw, Choctaw, Creek and Seminole) taken between 1896-1914.

http://www.accessgenealogy.com/ – Its Native American databases, the largest such collection online, include everything from the Final Rolls of the Five Civilized Tribes and Native American land patents to the 1871 Shawnee census and the 1880 Cherokee census.

NATURALIZATION

http://www.naturalizationrecords.com/ – Learn about naturalization and citizenship records and then follow the links to online searches.

NEWSPAPER ABSTRACTS

http://www.newspaperabstracts.com/ – Organized by state and county and focused on US newspapers prior to 1923. Some articles from other countries prior to 1900.

http://www.theoldentimes.com/ – Unlike Newspaper Abstracts, here you’ll find obituaries, birth and marriage announcements, ads and cartoons. All scanned from the Webmaster’s collection of 18th, 19th and early 20th century newspapers from the United States, British Isles and Australia.

OCCUPATIONAL RECORDS

www.hunterinformation.com/corporat.htm – Find your kin’s occupational records with this guide to company archives, arranged by corporation, archivist and geographic area.

OUTLAWS & SCOUNDRELS

http://www.blacksheepancestors.com/ – State-by-state listings of prisons and inmates, plus biographies of worldwide pirates and buccaneers.

PULLMEN

www.rootsweb.com/~ssghs/pullman.htm – Dig into the records of some 200,000 Pullman Car Works employees. By filling out a form on this site, SSGHS will do a search of records from 1900 to 1949 for free.

LINKS ~ The Mega Sites

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Report Broken Links to GreatOaksGrow@gmail.com.

http://www.ancestry.com/ – $$$ This is the Ancestry.com site. It interfaces with Family Tree Maker software.

http://www.archives.gov/ – This is the National Archives and Records Administration [NARA] site. It’s the place to go if you’re searching for information about a US veteran. Through the Access to Archival Databases [AAD] system at www.archives.gov/aad, you can search nearly 50 million records, including WWII records. The Archival Research Catalog at www.archives.gov/research_room/arc includes over 58,000 digitized images and 15,000 documents.

www.cyndislist.com/usvital.htm – Nearly 500 links to both general resource sites and state-related sites. Follow links to the individual state pages, which have a category called Records: Census, Cemeteries, Land, Obituaries, Personal, Taxes and Vital [born, married, died and buried]. You can keep track of additions to Cyndi’s List by subscribing to the site’s mailing list.

http://www.familysearch.org/ – The Church of Latter Day Saints is responsible for this mammoth site, with hundreds of millions of names in free databases. Visitors submit a large portion of the records at this site, so you shouldn’t take them as gospel. But they can be used for great leads and for making contact with other researchers.

http://www.footnote.com/ – $$$

http://www.gencircles.com/ – With more than 90 million ancestors in user-submitted databases, this site is a networker’s paradise. Aims to help genealogists quickly and efficiently find and trade information. If you find a match, you can download another person’s file (if permission has been given) or contact the person via email.

http://www.genealogy.com/ – $$$

http://www.genealogybank.com/ – $$$

http://www.genuki.org.uk/ – Loads of resources for UK and Ireland roots research. Organized geographically, with links relating to the British Isles as a whole, as well as to individual countries and regions.

http://www.heritagequestonline.com/ – $$$ You can only access this collection two ways: by visiting a subscribing library or genealogical society or by subscribing yourself.

http://www.deathindexes.com/ – Points you to online indexes and other death-date sources, including obituaries, cemetery records, burial records and probate indexes.

http://loc.gov/ – This is the Library of Congress site. With more than 127 million items, it’s greatest online asset is the American Memory Project at

http://www.lostcousins.com/ – $$$ Takes your relatives from FamilySearch’s 1880 US, 1881 Canadian and 1881 British census transcriptions and matches them to other researchers investigating the same folks. Only a subscriber can initiate contact with a “lost cousin” though there’s no charge to register or reply to a message.

http://www.myheritage.com/ – Free genealogy search engine which looks for ancestors [with spelling variations] in hundreds of genealogy databases.

http://www.mytrees.com/ – $$$ This sites ancestry archive boasts 233 million names in pedigree files, or you can search a combination of databases on and off the site totaling 1 billion with one click. If you submit your own family tree, access if free.

http://www.rootsweb.com/ – This free network maintains loads of searchable databases, including the RootsWeb Surname List (RSL), WorldConnect and the SSDI. Its mailing lists and bulletin boards facilitate networking between genealogists.

http://www.sampubco.com/ – Browse and do free searches on a variety of indexes to wills, naturalization and intentions, guardianships and vital records. Order copies for a modest fee.

http://www.sources2go.com/ – More than 100,000 digitized government records, city directories, census enumerations and military records. Access the entire 1790 census for free as well as bounty-land warrants from 1815-1858. Lacks indexes, so be prepared to browse.

http://stevemorse.org/ – Clever tools let you search a few dozen genealogy database sites in a single step.

http://www.tribalpages.com/ – Free site lets you share, document, chart and illustrate your family tree online. More than 100,000 trees, a database of more than 80 million names and 1 million photos.

http://www.usgenweb.org/ – One of the most valuable sites for US researchers. There’s a site for each US county with links to archives, queries and county histories.

http://www.werelate.org/ – Lets you scour 6 million family history-related web pages, create and collaborate on pages and build an online tree.

http://worldvitalrecords.com/ – $$$ This site aims to ma e a web page for every deceased person and every location in the world. Thanks to a partnership with the Family History Library, you can access this site free at all Family History Centers.

LINKS ~ Online Books

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Published family and local histories offer a rich source of potential information and vital statistics about your ancestors. Even if your family's genealogy has not been published, local and family histories can offer insight into the places your ancestors lived and the people they may have encountered during their lifetime.

Before you head to the local library or bookstore, take time to explore what might be available online. Literally hundreds of thousands of genealogies, local histories and other items of genealogical interest can be search, viewed and downloaded online for FREE!

BYU Family History Archive
The BYU Family History Archive, a free collection of family histories, local histories, city directories and other genealogy books online, is the result of a partnership of three major genealogical libraries: The Allen County Public Library in Fort Wayne, Indiana; Brigham Young University Harold B. Lee Library; and FamilySearch's Family History Library in Salt Lake City. Digitized books have "every word" search capability, with search results linked to digital images of the original publication. When complete, this massive digitization effort promises to be the most comprehensive collection of city and county histories one the Web. Best of all, access will remain free! http://www.lib.byu.edu/fhc/index.php

Google Books
Select "all books" to include books which allow viewing of over a million books, many out of copyright, but also others for which publishers have given Google permission to display limited book previews (which often includes the Table of Contents and Index pages, so you can easily check to see if a particular book includes information about your ancestor). The list of useful books, pamphlets, newspaper articles and ephemera that you might encounter includes many county histories and biographies published in the late 1800s and early 1900s, as well as family histories. Searching Google Books is much like searching Google - use phrases such as "powell family" and other techniques to limit your results. http://books.google.com/

HeritageQuest Online
HeritageQuest is a genealogical resource offered for free by many libraries across the United States and Canada. Most participating libraries even offer their patrons remote access from a home computer. The HeritageQuest book collection includes about 22,000 digitized family histories and local histories. Books are every-word searchable, or can be viewed page by page in their entirety. Downloading is limited to 50 pages, however. You generally won't be able to search HeritageQuest directly through this link - instead check with your local library to see if they offer this database and then connect through their site with your library card. http://persi.heritagequestonline.com/hqoweb/library/do/books

Internet Text Archive
Archive.org, known by many by its Wayback Machine, also hosts a rich text archive of books, articles and other texts. The biggest collection of interest to family historians is the American Libraries collection, which includes over 300 city directories and 1000 family histories free for searching, viewing, downloading and printing. The Canadian Libraries collection also includes genealogies and local histories. http://www.archive.org/details/texts

Canadian Local Histories Online
The Our Roots project bills itself as the world's largest collection of published Canadian local histories. Thousands of digital copies in French and English are available online and are searchable by date, subject, author or keyword. http://www.ourroots.ca/

Tracing Italian Orphans & Illegitimate Children

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Tracing Italian Lineages of Adoptees & Ancestors Born Outside Marriage

found at http://www.regalis.com/adopt.htm

Introduction

Investigative and genealogical research pertaining to adopted ancestors or ancestors born outside marriage presents particular challenges. While each case is unique, certain generalities can be considered based upon the nature of social conditions, as well as available records. For the most part, we shall base these generalities on civil (vital statistics) records, as opposed to church records (parochial acts of baptism, marriage, etc.). Historical topics relate to births from circa 1810 to circa 1860; subsequent births will be said to be contemporary, births in the twentieth century being considered investigative cases rather than genealogical research projects per se.

Before embarking on any project involving an adoptive ancestor or one born outside marriage, it is important that the researcher acknowledge and comprehend several factors. From 1860 until 1929, the Italian state (i.e. the Kingdom of Italy) did not recognize Catholic marriages. Although it is true that both ecclesiastical and civil marriages were performed for most spousal unions in certain parts of Italy (such as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) in the decades before 1860, the Kingdom of Italy refused to recognize ecclesiastical marriages altogether. This means that an act of birth from, for example, 1875, might refer to a child as the son of "an unwed mother" who in fact was married in church but not at the town hall. Terms of one of the Lateran Treaties granted retroactive state recognition of these ecclesiastical marriages in 1929. Therefore, such acts must be confirmed by consultation of parochial records.

Hearsay may provide certain general information, but its legitimate research value usually correlates in some way (often inversely) to its social value. An unwed mother might have claimed, perhaps long after her child's birth and far away from the locality where she resided when she gave birth, that the natural father was a local aristocrat; families often perpetuated such stories to salvage the dignity of both mother and child. A genealogist, however, would require more than a merely circumstantial "allegation" of paternity in such a case-namely, a formal act of recognition sworn by the natural father before the vital statistics registrar.

An act of recognition would not have "legitimized" such a child for purposes such as succession to a title of nobility, though it may have allowed him, if only under very particular conditions, to inherit certain other paternal property, but in any event a married man would not likely consent to acknowledge publicly that he had committed adultery or fornication. The principle of legitimacy relates to crown (statutory) and church (canon) laws too complex to be described in detail here. Illegitimacy in Italy has never been as rigidly defined as in English law, which distinguishes, for example, between "bastards" and "adulterine bastards." Canon law formerly dictated that only legitimately-born men could be ordained to the priesthood, but this condition is no longer required for ordination. Rigid privacy laws prohibit direct consultation of contemporary (post-1910) vital statistics records, or any such records that have not been deposited with a provincial state archive.

Historical Cases

Into the 19th century, foundlings were often given surnames which actually indicated their illegitimacy. Proietti meant "cast out," Trovato literally meant "foundling," and D'Ignoti "of unknown" parents. Esposito derived directly from the Latin ex positum (literally "of this place") which appeared in some acts of baptism of foundlings. Legislation passed in 1928 outlawed the practice of assigning such children surnames indicative of their illegitimacy or abandonment, but surnames of some sort still had to be given to these children. These were sometimes the surnames of royal and noble families, but more often they were toponymic (geographical) in nature or alluded to the day, month or season of the child's birth (i.e. Sabato, Maggio, Primavera and so forth).

An act of birth referring to an infant's paternity as "unknown" was normally necessary if the mother was unwed and the natural (biological) father had not come forth to recognize the child. Reference to "unknown" maternity was more frequent in the cases of complete abandonment of infants; this doesn't necessarily imply that all such infants were born to unwed parents. Where this kind of declaration was made by a midwife, it is reasonable to presume that she knew the identify of the woman whose baby she helped to deliver. It is presumed that the mother declaring the birth of her own illegitimate child knew who fathered the baby.

The texts of acts of baptism usually indicated "legitimate and natural" children of listed parents, and "natural" progeny of a single parent (usually the mother) or unknown parents.

Acts of recognition may be contained in particular registers covering a number of years, or they may be found in , which may also include adoptions and sundry legal acts relating in some way to vital statistics. It should be observed that atti diversi registers are not dedicated exclusively to adoptions and births outside marriage. In some localities, there are particular registers dedicated exclusively to proietti, or foundlings. Most frequently, acts of births regarding foundlings or children born to unwed mothers were filed in the same registers as other births.

Contemporary Cases

After 1860, civil acts of birth were instituted throughout Italy, whereas previously they were kept only in certain regions or were attached to acts of baptism. In general, acts of birth and marriage after 1860 provide far less genealogically useful information than will be found in acts issued prior to that date.

In considering this period, it is worth noting that Italian orphanages traditionally were sponsored by the religious orders, and therefore answered to the church before the state. Very few of their archives have been preserved for consultation, and in the event usually do not provide the explicit information (such as parentage) that facilitates lineal research. However, many children were placed in orphanages who were not "orphans" in the most traditional sense. For example, a man whose wife died might place his children in an orphanage even though they were no longer infants (for instance, children around the age of 10 years).

In the event an infant were placed for adoption (for example, by a young unwed mother) after his birth was registered, the birth record itself might include parentage, or at least indicate maternity. However, direct consultation of such acts, which may be prohibited even to most vital statistics personnel, is usually impossible, and only a "simple" birth certificate (without indication of parentage) normally will be issued. In fact, most birth certificates issued in Italy today, and all those required for official use such as school registration, are released on forms which do not even have a designated space for parents' names. This is likewise true for most contemporary baptismal certificates.

In certain cases, an infant was placed for adoption immediately, even before his birth was registered. In such cases, the birth records would contain less information.

20th century adoptions, including many of those processed after 1946, have often been undertaken through various Catholic agencies; this included newborns as well as children resident in orphanages, and until the 1970s some such adoptions were "international" (i.e. Italian-born children placed with overseas couples). Certain information pertinent to such adoptions would be retained by the agencies (many of which are now defunct) and, in most cases, by the local court responsible for registration of adoptions. Unfortunately for adoptees in search of their natural parents, such records are usually not available for consultation.

Circumstantial Evidence and Investigations

Circumstantial factors must be considered objectively in cases involving foundlings, adoptees and children born outside marriage. In the rare instances when conclusions are drawn, these must be based upon a preponderance of the evidence, and all evidence must have been reviewed carefully. This may involve parochial records as well as civil ones, and will normally require direct consultation of records in Italy, as opposed to superficial review of microfilmed records.

Sociological factors and practices are extremely important in this particular branch of genealogical research, and bureaucratic procedures (regarding access to records, etc.) are relevant. In most cases, research involving a project of this nature should be entrusted to a professional genealogist based in Italy who is experienced in investigations and studies of this kind. Especially in contemporary cases concerning living persons, such investigations may require particular strategies and tactics which have not been described here. Adoptees in search of their natural parents should invest prudently in such investigations to avoid misrepresentation or fraud, which unfortunately are commonplace in such cases.

Explanation About the Naming of Orphans in Italy at the Turn of the Last Century

Written by Mike Maddi and published in a special issue of POINTERS magazine

Proietti is the plural form of proietto, a word used in central and southern Italy for a foundling. The origin is the Latin verb proicer, with the past participle proiectus meaning thrown away.

Why was the surname Proietti given to illegitimate Italian children?

Proietti were given that surname by the state because they were abandoned and the surnames of their parents were unknown. This assigned name was retained by each proietto, male or female, throughout his or her life. In the case of a child whose mother was known (but whose father was not), that child received the surname of the mother. This was the procedure in the 19th century Molise. The surnames assigned to the foundlings varied from town to town. Some towns used surnames such as Proietto, Trovalto (foundling), Esposito (of the place), and D’Ignoti (of unknown), which reflected the status of the child. Some surnames were tongue-in-cheek, e.g., d’Amore or d’Innocenzia.

In 1928, these methods were outlawed as being detrimental to the foundlings so named. Other towns used the surnames of noted men or of families that died out.

During the early part of the 19th century in Campobasso, Esposito and Fortunata were often used. However, by the middle of that century, they mostly used variations of common surnames, e.g., Angellillo to Angellini.

My own greatgrandfather was a proietto, perhaps named after Cardinal Armellino, a noted – if often despised – cardinal of the 15th century. Giovanni da Verrazano, during his voyage to the New World, named a treacherous shoal off of present-day Cape Cod after this Cardinal; he apparently had a sense of humor. I recently encountered a proietto, born circa 1833, named Cristofaro Colombo.

In modern day America, we assume that the only reason that a mother would abandon her child is because of illegitimacy. That might have been one of the reasons a baby would be abandoned in Italy in the 19th century, but not the only one. If the child was illegitimate, the mother may have kept the baby and her surname would be the baby’s surname, not proietto. But there were a significant percentage of abandoned babies in Italy who were the children of married couples. In these cases, it was likely that they were poor peasants with several other children and they could not afford to feed another child. So they anonymously abandoned the child at the ruota (wheel), usually at the local convent or church (a ruota was a type of cabinet on a pivot, used in cloistered convents to give or to receive things from the outside, sort of a turntable in a wall).

Many times they included a little trinket with the child, so that, if their economic situation improved, they could prove that they were the actual parents and could get their child back some day. Unfortunately, for most of the proietti, the mortality rate was very high, with most not surviving past one or two years of age. They basically were raised in the foundling homes, although some cities gave them to women with families, who raised them. In some of those cases, they were treated as a servant or field laborer.

My great-grandfather, Nunzio Maddi, was probably born as a proietto baby around 1845 in Sicily, although I have not been able to find his birth record to confirm this. All the families of the children of Nunzio and his wife had a story that he was an abandoned baby, (whose father was a nobleman, of course!), who was given to a Maddi family to raise.

I found my grandfather’s 1875 birth record from Sicily on Family History Library microfilm. It describes my grandfather as Girolamo Maddi di Nunzio d’Ignoti inteso Maddi, a rough translation being Girolamo Maddi, son of Nunzio, of unknown parents also known as Maddi. The 1875 birth record of my grandfather’s sister omits the d’Ignoti and inteso phrases when referring to Nunzio. I don’t know whether this indicates that he proved that his real father was a Maddi or he just legally adopted the surname in some way. Another brick wall to knock down.

Miscelleneous Gleanings From Various Sources

Italian "Fantasy" Names

Specific surnames were most commonly given to children who were orphans, illegitimate or foundlings such as Esposito meaning "exposed" or Trovato, meaning "found". They identified the child for life as an abandoned child. This often caused shame and embarrassment to the child. After the Unification in 1865, this practice was no longer allowed. Other common foundling names include:

Benvenuto - Welcome
Conforte - Comforted
Salvati - Saved
Brutto - Ugly
Sventura- Unfortunate
Aflitto - Afflicted

Abbreviations Found on Italian Documents

Nomen nescio (abbreviated to N.N.) is used to signify an anonymous or non-specific person. From Latin nomen, name, and nescire, not to know, be ignorant of. Together ... I do not know the name. Genealogists sometimes use the abbreviation to signify an unknown or partially unknown name (such as N.N. Jones).

Good Reads
Abandoned Children of the Italian Rennaisance, Orphan Care in Florence and Bologna
by Nicholas Terpstra